Allowing foreign keys where the referenced and the referencing columns
have collations with different notions of equality is problematic.
This can only happen when using nondeterministic collations, for
example, if the referencing column is case-insensitive and the
referenced column is not, or vice versa. It does not happen if both
collations are deterministic.
To show one example:
CREATE COLLATION case_insensitive (provider = icu, deterministic = false, locale = 'und-u-ks-level2');
CREATE TABLE pktable (x text COLLATE "C" PRIMARY KEY);
CREATE TABLE fktable (x text COLLATE case_insensitive REFERENCES pktable ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE);
INSERT INTO pktable VALUES ('A'), ('a');
INSERT INTO fktable VALUES ('A');
BEGIN; DELETE FROM pktable WHERE x = 'a'; TABLE fktable; ROLLBACK;
BEGIN; DELETE FROM pktable WHERE x = 'A'; TABLE fktable; ROLLBACK;
Both of these DELETE statements delete the one row from fktable. So
this means that one row from fktable references two rows in pktable,
which should not happen. (That's why a primary key or unique
constraint is required on pktable.)
When nondeterministic collations were implemented, the SQL standard
available to yours truly said that referential integrity checks should
be performed with the collation of the referenced column, and so
that's how we implemented it. But this turned out to be a mistake in
the SQL standard, for the same reasons as above, that was later
(SQL:2016) fixed to require both collations to be the same. So that's
what we are aiming for here.
We don't have to be quite so strict. We can allow different
collations if they are both deterministic. This is also good for
backward compatibility.
So the new rule is that the collations either have to be the same or
both deterministic. Or in other words, if one of them is
nondeterministic, then both have to be the same.
Users upgrading from before that have affected setups will need to
make changes to their schemas (i.e., change one or both collations in
affected foreign-key relationships) before the upgrade will succeed.
Some of the nice test cases for the previous situation in
collate.icu.utf8.sql are now obsolete. They are changed to just check
the error checking of the new rule. Note that collate.sql already
contained a test for foreign keys with different deterministic
collations.
A bunch of code in ri_triggers.c that added a COLLATE clause to
enforce the referenced column's collation can be removed, because both
columns now have to have the same notion of equality, so it doesn't
matter which one to use.
Reported-by: Paul Jungwirth <[email protected]>
Reviewed-by: Jian He <[email protected]>
Discussion: https://www.postgresql.org/message-id/flat/
78d824e0-b21e-480d-a252-
e4b84bc2c24b@illuminatedcomputing.com
must have its final column marked <literal>WITHOUT OVERLAPS</literal>.
</para>
+ <para>
+ For each pair of referencing and referenced column, if they are of a
+ collatable data type, then the collations must either be both
+ deterministic or else both the same. This ensures that both columns
+ have a consistent notion of equality.
+ </para>
+
<para>
The user
must have <literal>REFERENCES</literal> permission on the referenced
Relation rel, char *constrName,
bool recurse, bool recursing, LOCKMODE lockmode);
static int transformColumnNameList(Oid relId, List *colList,
- int16 *attnums, Oid *atttypids);
+ int16 *attnums, Oid *atttypids, Oid *attcollids);
static int transformFkeyGetPrimaryKey(Relation pkrel, Oid *indexOid,
List **attnamelist,
- int16 *attnums, Oid *atttypids,
+ int16 *attnums, Oid *atttypids, Oid *attcollids,
Oid *opclasses, bool *pk_has_without_overlaps);
static Oid transformFkeyCheckAttrs(Relation pkrel,
int numattrs, int16 *attnums,
int16 fkattnum[INDEX_MAX_KEYS] = {0};
Oid pktypoid[INDEX_MAX_KEYS] = {0};
Oid fktypoid[INDEX_MAX_KEYS] = {0};
+ Oid pkcolloid[INDEX_MAX_KEYS] = {0};
+ Oid fkcolloid[INDEX_MAX_KEYS] = {0};
Oid opclasses[INDEX_MAX_KEYS] = {0};
Oid pfeqoperators[INDEX_MAX_KEYS] = {0};
Oid ppeqoperators[INDEX_MAX_KEYS] = {0};
/*
* Look up the referencing attributes to make sure they exist, and record
- * their attnums and type OIDs.
+ * their attnums and type and collation OIDs.
*/
numfks = transformColumnNameList(RelationGetRelid(rel),
fkconstraint->fk_attrs,
- fkattnum, fktypoid);
+ fkattnum, fktypoid, fkcolloid);
with_period = fkconstraint->fk_with_period || fkconstraint->pk_with_period;
if (with_period && !fkconstraint->fk_with_period)
ereport(ERROR,
numfkdelsetcols = transformColumnNameList(RelationGetRelid(rel),
fkconstraint->fk_del_set_cols,
- fkdelsetcols, NULL);
+ fkdelsetcols, NULL, NULL);
validateFkOnDeleteSetColumns(numfks, fkattnum,
numfkdelsetcols, fkdelsetcols,
fkconstraint->fk_del_set_cols);
* If the attribute list for the referenced table was omitted, lookup the
* definition of the primary key and use it. Otherwise, validate the
* supplied attribute list. In either case, discover the index OID and
- * index opclasses, and the attnums and type OIDs of the attributes.
+ * index opclasses, and the attnums and type and collation OIDs of the
+ * attributes.
*/
if (fkconstraint->pk_attrs == NIL)
{
numpks = transformFkeyGetPrimaryKey(pkrel, &indexOid,
&fkconstraint->pk_attrs,
- pkattnum, pktypoid,
+ pkattnum, pktypoid, pkcolloid,
opclasses, &pk_has_without_overlaps);
/* If the primary key uses WITHOUT OVERLAPS, the fk must use PERIOD */
{
numpks = transformColumnNameList(RelationGetRelid(pkrel),
fkconstraint->pk_attrs,
- pkattnum, pktypoid);
+ pkattnum, pktypoid, pkcolloid);
/* Since we got pk_attrs, one should be a period. */
if (with_period && !fkconstraint->pk_with_period)
Oid pktype = pktypoid[i];
Oid fktype = fktypoid[i];
Oid fktyped;
+ Oid pkcoll = pkcolloid[i];
+ Oid fkcoll = fkcolloid[i];
HeapTuple cla_ht;
Form_pg_opclass cla_tup;
Oid amid;
format_type_be(fktype),
format_type_be(pktype))));
+ /*
+ * This shouldn't be possible, but better check to make sure we have a
+ * consistent state for the check below.
+ */
+ if ((OidIsValid(pkcoll) && !OidIsValid(fkcoll)) || (!OidIsValid(pkcoll) && OidIsValid(fkcoll)))
+ elog(ERROR, "key columns are not both collatable");
+
+ if (OidIsValid(pkcoll) && OidIsValid(fkcoll))
+ {
+ bool pkcolldet;
+ bool fkcolldet;
+
+ pkcolldet = get_collation_isdeterministic(pkcoll);
+ fkcolldet = get_collation_isdeterministic(fkcoll);
+
+ /*
+ * SQL requires that both collations are the same. This is
+ * because we need a consistent notion of equality on both
+ * columns. We relax this by allowing different collations if
+ * they are both deterministic. (This is also for backward
+ * compatibility, because PostgreSQL has always allowed this.)
+ */
+ if ((!pkcolldet || !fkcolldet) && pkcoll != fkcoll)
+ ereport(ERROR,
+ (errcode(ERRCODE_COLLATION_MISMATCH),
+ errmsg("foreign key constraint \"%s\" cannot be implemented", fkconstraint->conname),
+ errdetail("Key columns \"%s\" of the referencing table and \"%s\" of the referenced table "
+ "have incompatible collations: \"%s\" and \"%s\". "
+ "If either collation is nondeterministic, then both collations have to be the same.",
+ strVal(list_nth(fkconstraint->fk_attrs, i)),
+ strVal(list_nth(fkconstraint->pk_attrs, i)),
+ get_collation_name(fkcoll),
+ get_collation_name(pkcoll))));
+ }
+
if (old_check_ok)
{
/*
CoercionPathType new_pathtype;
Oid old_castfunc;
Oid new_castfunc;
+ Oid old_fkcoll;
+ Oid new_fkcoll;
Form_pg_attribute attr = TupleDescAttr(tab->oldDesc,
fkattnum[i] - 1);
new_pathtype = findFkeyCast(pfeqop_right, new_fktype,
&new_castfunc);
+ old_fkcoll = attr->attcollation;
+ new_fkcoll = fkcoll;
+
/*
* Upon a change to the cast from the FK column to its pfeqop
* operand, revalidate the constraint. For this evaluation, a
* turn conform to the domain. Consequently, we need not treat
* domains specially here.
*
- * Since we require that all collations share the same notion of
- * equality (which they do, because texteq reduces to bitwise
- * equality), we don't compare collation here.
+ * If the collation changes, revalidation is required, unless both
+ * collations are deterministic, because those share the same
+ * notion of equality (because texteq reduces to bitwise
+ * equality).
*
* We need not directly consider the PK type. It's necessarily
* binary coercible to the opcintype of the unique index column,
old_check_ok = (new_pathtype == old_pathtype &&
new_castfunc == old_castfunc &&
(!IsPolymorphicType(pfeqop_right) ||
- new_fktype == old_fktype));
+ new_fktype == old_fktype) &&
+ (new_fkcoll == old_fkcoll ||
+ (get_collation_isdeterministic(old_fkcoll) && get_collation_isdeterministic(new_fkcoll))));
}
pfeqoperators[i] = pfeqop;
/*
* transformColumnNameList - transform list of column names
*
- * Lookup each name and return its attnum and, optionally, type OID
+ * Lookup each name and return its attnum and, optionally, type and collation
+ * OIDs
*
* Note: the name of this function suggests that it's general-purpose,
* but actually it's only used to look up names appearing in foreign-key
*/
static int
transformColumnNameList(Oid relId, List *colList,
- int16 *attnums, Oid *atttypids)
+ int16 *attnums, Oid *atttypids, Oid *attcollids)
{
ListCell *l;
int attnum;
attnums[attnum] = attform->attnum;
if (atttypids != NULL)
atttypids[attnum] = attform->atttypid;
+ if (attcollids != NULL)
+ attcollids[attnum] = attform->attcollation;
ReleaseSysCache(atttuple);
attnum++;
}
/*
* transformFkeyGetPrimaryKey -
*
- * Look up the names, attnums, and types of the primary key attributes
+ * Look up the names, attnums, types, and collations of the primary key attributes
* for the pkrel. Also return the index OID and index opclasses of the
* index supporting the primary key. Also return whether the index has
* WITHOUT OVERLAPS.
static int
transformFkeyGetPrimaryKey(Relation pkrel, Oid *indexOid,
List **attnamelist,
- int16 *attnums, Oid *atttypids,
+ int16 *attnums, Oid *atttypids, Oid *attcollids,
Oid *opclasses, bool *pk_has_without_overlaps)
{
List *indexoidlist;
attnums[i] = pkattno;
atttypids[i] = attnumTypeId(pkrel, pkattno);
+ attcollids[i] = attnumCollationId(pkrel, pkattno);
opclasses[i] = indclass->values[i];
*attnamelist = lappend(*attnamelist,
makeString(pstrdup(NameStr(*attnumAttName(pkrel, pkattno)))));
int32 constr_queryno);
static bool ri_KeysEqual(Relation rel, TupleTableSlot *oldslot, TupleTableSlot *newslot,
const RI_ConstraintInfo *riinfo, bool rel_is_pk);
-static bool ri_CompareWithCast(Oid eq_opr, Oid typeid,
+static bool ri_CompareWithCast(Oid eq_opr, Oid typeid, Oid collid,
Datum lhs, Datum rhs);
static void ri_InitHashTables(void);
{
Oid pk_type = RIAttType(pk_rel, riinfo->pk_attnums[i]);
Oid fk_type = RIAttType(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]);
- Oid pk_coll = RIAttCollation(pk_rel, riinfo->pk_attnums[i]);
- Oid fk_coll = RIAttCollation(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]);
quoteOneName(attname,
RIAttName(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]));
paramname, pk_type,
riinfo->pf_eq_oprs[i],
attname, fk_type);
- if (pk_coll != fk_coll && !get_collation_isdeterministic(pk_coll))
- ri_GenerateQualCollation(&querybuf, pk_coll);
querysep = "AND";
queryoids[i] = pk_type;
}
{
Oid pk_type = RIAttType(pk_rel, riinfo->pk_attnums[i]);
Oid fk_type = RIAttType(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]);
- Oid pk_coll = RIAttCollation(pk_rel, riinfo->pk_attnums[i]);
- Oid fk_coll = RIAttCollation(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]);
quoteOneName(attname,
RIAttName(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]));
paramname, pk_type,
riinfo->pf_eq_oprs[i],
attname, fk_type);
- if (pk_coll != fk_coll && !get_collation_isdeterministic(pk_coll))
- ri_GenerateQualCollation(&querybuf, pk_coll);
querysep = "AND";
queryoids[i] = pk_type;
}
{
Oid pk_type = RIAttType(pk_rel, riinfo->pk_attnums[i]);
Oid fk_type = RIAttType(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]);
- Oid pk_coll = RIAttCollation(pk_rel, riinfo->pk_attnums[i]);
- Oid fk_coll = RIAttCollation(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]);
quoteOneName(attname,
RIAttName(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]));
paramname, pk_type,
riinfo->pf_eq_oprs[i],
attname, fk_type);
- if (pk_coll != fk_coll && !get_collation_isdeterministic(pk_coll))
- ri_GenerateQualCollation(&querybuf, pk_coll);
querysep = ",";
qualsep = "AND";
queryoids[i] = pk_type;
{
Oid pk_type = RIAttType(pk_rel, riinfo->pk_attnums[i]);
Oid fk_type = RIAttType(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]);
- Oid pk_coll = RIAttCollation(pk_rel, riinfo->pk_attnums[i]);
- Oid fk_coll = RIAttCollation(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]);
quoteOneName(attname,
RIAttName(fk_rel, riinfo->fk_attnums[i]));
paramname, pk_type,
riinfo->pf_eq_oprs[i],
attname, fk_type);
- if (pk_coll != fk_coll && !get_collation_isdeterministic(pk_coll))
- ri_GenerateQualCollation(&querybuf, pk_coll);
qualsep = "AND";
queryoids[i] = pk_type;
}
/*
* ri_GenerateQualCollation --- add a COLLATE spec to a WHERE clause
*
- * At present, we intentionally do not use this function for RI queries that
- * compare a variable to a $n parameter. Since parameter symbols always have
- * default collation, the effect will be to use the variable's collation.
- * Now that is only strictly correct when testing the referenced column, since
- * the SQL standard specifies that RI comparisons should use the referenced
- * column's collation. However, so long as all collations have the same
- * notion of equality (which they do, because texteq reduces to bitwise
- * equality), there's no visible semantic impact from using the referencing
- * column's collation when testing it, and this is a good thing to do because
- * it lets us use a normal index on the referencing column. However, we do
- * have to use this function when directly comparing the referencing and
- * referenced columns, if they are of different collations; else the parser
- * will fail to resolve the collation to use.
+ * We only have to use this function when directly comparing the referencing
+ * and referenced columns, if they are of different collations; else the
+ * parser will fail to resolve the collation to use. We don't need to use
+ * this function for RI queries that compare a variable to a $n parameter.
+ * Since parameter symbols always have default collation, the effect will be
+ * to use the variable's collation.
+ *
+ * Note that we require that the collations of the referencing and the
+ * referenced column have the same notion of equality: Either they have to
+ * both be deterministic or else they both have to be the same. (See also
+ * ATAddForeignKeyConstraint().)
*/
static void
ri_GenerateQualCollation(StringInfo buf, Oid collation)
* operator. Changes that compare equal will still satisfy the
* constraint after the update.
*/
- if (!ri_CompareWithCast(eq_opr, RIAttType(rel, attnums[i]),
+ if (!ri_CompareWithCast(eq_opr, RIAttType(rel, attnums[i]), RIAttCollation(rel, attnums[i]),
newvalue, oldvalue))
return false;
}
* Call the appropriate comparison operator for two values.
* Normally this is equality, but for the PERIOD part of foreign keys
* it is ContainedBy, so the order of lhs vs rhs is significant.
+ * See below for how the collation is applied.
*
* NB: we have already checked that neither value is null.
*/
static bool
-ri_CompareWithCast(Oid eq_opr, Oid typeid,
+ri_CompareWithCast(Oid eq_opr, Oid typeid, Oid collid,
Datum lhs, Datum rhs)
{
RI_CompareHashEntry *entry = ri_HashCompareOp(eq_opr, typeid);
* on the other side of a foreign-key constraint. Therefore, the
* comparison here would need to be done with the collation of the *other*
* table. For simplicity (e.g., we might not even have the other table
- * open), we'll just use the default collation here, which could lead to
- * some false negatives. All this would break if we ever allow
- * database-wide collations to be nondeterministic.
+ * open), we'll use our own collation. This is fine because we require
+ * that both collations have the same notion of equality (either they are
+ * both deterministic or else they are both the same).
*
* With range/multirangetypes, the collation of the base type is stored as
* part of the rangetype (pg_range.rngcollation), and always used, so
* But if we support arbitrary types with PERIOD, we should perhaps just
* always force a re-check.
*/
- return DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(&entry->eq_opr_finfo,
- DEFAULT_COLLATION_OID,
- lhs, rhs));
+ return DatumGetBool(FunctionCall2Coll(&entry->eq_opr_finfo, collid, lhs, rhs));
}
/*
1 | cote
(1 row)
--- foreign keys (should use collation of primary key)
--- PK is case-sensitive, FK is case-insensitive
+-- foreign keys (mixing different nondeterministic collations not allowed)
CREATE TABLE test10pk (x text COLLATE case_sensitive PRIMARY KEY);
-INSERT INTO test10pk VALUES ('abc'), ('def'), ('ghi');
-CREATE TABLE test10fk (x text COLLATE case_insensitive REFERENCES test10pk (x) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE);
-INSERT INTO test10fk VALUES ('abc'); -- ok
-INSERT INTO test10fk VALUES ('ABC'); -- error
-ERROR: insert or update on table "test10fk" violates foreign key constraint "test10fk_x_fkey"
-DETAIL: Key (x)=(ABC) is not present in table "test10pk".
-INSERT INTO test10fk VALUES ('xyz'); -- error
-ERROR: insert or update on table "test10fk" violates foreign key constraint "test10fk_x_fkey"
-DETAIL: Key (x)=(xyz) is not present in table "test10pk".
-SELECT * FROM test10pk;
- x
------
- abc
- def
- ghi
-(3 rows)
-
-SELECT * FROM test10fk;
- x
------
- abc
-(1 row)
-
--- restrict update even though the values are "equal" in the FK table
-UPDATE test10fk SET x = 'ABC' WHERE x = 'abc'; -- error
-ERROR: insert or update on table "test10fk" violates foreign key constraint "test10fk_x_fkey"
-DETAIL: Key (x)=(ABC) is not present in table "test10pk".
-SELECT * FROM test10fk;
- x
------
- abc
-(1 row)
-
-DELETE FROM test10pk WHERE x = 'abc';
-SELECT * FROM test10pk;
- x
------
- def
- ghi
-(2 rows)
-
-SELECT * FROM test10fk;
- x
----
-(0 rows)
-
--- PK is case-insensitive, FK is case-sensitive
+CREATE TABLE test10fk (x text COLLATE case_insensitive REFERENCES test10pk (x) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE); -- error
+ERROR: foreign key constraint "test10fk_x_fkey" cannot be implemented
+DETAIL: Key columns "x" of the referencing table and "x" of the referenced table have incompatible collations: "case_insensitive" and "case_sensitive". If either collation is nondeterministic, then both collations have to be the same.
CREATE TABLE test11pk (x text COLLATE case_insensitive PRIMARY KEY);
-INSERT INTO test11pk VALUES ('abc'), ('def'), ('ghi');
-CREATE TABLE test11fk (x text COLLATE case_sensitive REFERENCES test11pk (x) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE);
-INSERT INTO test11fk VALUES ('abc'); -- ok
-INSERT INTO test11fk VALUES ('ABC'); -- ok
-INSERT INTO test11fk VALUES ('xyz'); -- error
-ERROR: insert or update on table "test11fk" violates foreign key constraint "test11fk_x_fkey"
-DETAIL: Key (x)=(xyz) is not present in table "test11pk".
-SELECT * FROM test11pk;
- x
------
- abc
- def
- ghi
-(3 rows)
-
-SELECT * FROM test11fk;
- x
------
- abc
- ABC
-(2 rows)
-
--- cascade update even though the values are "equal" in the PK table
-UPDATE test11pk SET x = 'ABC' WHERE x = 'abc';
-SELECT * FROM test11fk;
- x
------
- ABC
- ABC
-(2 rows)
-
-DELETE FROM test11pk WHERE x = 'abc';
-SELECT * FROM test11pk;
- x
------
- def
- ghi
-(2 rows)
-
-SELECT * FROM test11fk;
- x
----
-(0 rows)
-
+CREATE TABLE test11fk (x text COLLATE case_sensitive REFERENCES test11pk (x) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE); -- error
+ERROR: foreign key constraint "test11fk_x_fkey" cannot be implemented
+DETAIL: Key columns "x" of the referencing table and "x" of the referenced table have incompatible collations: "case_sensitive" and "case_insensitive". If either collation is nondeterministic, then both collations have to be the same.
-- partitioning
CREATE TABLE test20 (a int, b text COLLATE case_insensitive) PARTITION BY LIST (b);
CREATE TABLE test20_1 PARTITION OF test20 FOR VALUES IN ('abc');
SELECT * FROM test4 WHERE b = 'Cote' COLLATE ignore_accents; -- still case-sensitive
SELECT * FROM test4 WHERE b = 'Cote' COLLATE case_insensitive;
--- foreign keys (should use collation of primary key)
-
--- PK is case-sensitive, FK is case-insensitive
+-- foreign keys (mixing different nondeterministic collations not allowed)
CREATE TABLE test10pk (x text COLLATE case_sensitive PRIMARY KEY);
-INSERT INTO test10pk VALUES ('abc'), ('def'), ('ghi');
-CREATE TABLE test10fk (x text COLLATE case_insensitive REFERENCES test10pk (x) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE);
-INSERT INTO test10fk VALUES ('abc'); -- ok
-INSERT INTO test10fk VALUES ('ABC'); -- error
-INSERT INTO test10fk VALUES ('xyz'); -- error
-SELECT * FROM test10pk;
-SELECT * FROM test10fk;
--- restrict update even though the values are "equal" in the FK table
-UPDATE test10fk SET x = 'ABC' WHERE x = 'abc'; -- error
-SELECT * FROM test10fk;
-DELETE FROM test10pk WHERE x = 'abc';
-SELECT * FROM test10pk;
-SELECT * FROM test10fk;
-
--- PK is case-insensitive, FK is case-sensitive
+CREATE TABLE test10fk (x text COLLATE case_insensitive REFERENCES test10pk (x) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE); -- error
+
CREATE TABLE test11pk (x text COLLATE case_insensitive PRIMARY KEY);
-INSERT INTO test11pk VALUES ('abc'), ('def'), ('ghi');
-CREATE TABLE test11fk (x text COLLATE case_sensitive REFERENCES test11pk (x) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE);
-INSERT INTO test11fk VALUES ('abc'); -- ok
-INSERT INTO test11fk VALUES ('ABC'); -- ok
-INSERT INTO test11fk VALUES ('xyz'); -- error
-SELECT * FROM test11pk;
-SELECT * FROM test11fk;
--- cascade update even though the values are "equal" in the PK table
-UPDATE test11pk SET x = 'ABC' WHERE x = 'abc';
-SELECT * FROM test11fk;
-DELETE FROM test11pk WHERE x = 'abc';
-SELECT * FROM test11pk;
-SELECT * FROM test11fk;
+CREATE TABLE test11fk (x text COLLATE case_sensitive REFERENCES test11pk (x) ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE CASCADE); -- error
-- partitioning
CREATE TABLE test20 (a int, b text COLLATE case_insensitive) PARTITION BY LIST (b);
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