= 9 ° Ge root.withdraw() 0 5 *# 1 @< / = @ 0: < % OB x ( =] se HM YT yas eelel ite lw, oN iu, a ) 8 nate ae: i) % < score=score+1 % x = 0 1 7 & i ae ee ae ee ee A STEP-BY-STEP VISUAL GUIDEPenguin: DIK) | Rancom \ House DKUK Senior editors Sen Morgan, Steve Setford Senior art editor Fetes Radcife Consultant editor Craia steele Jacket design development manager Sophia IT Jacket editor Claire Gell Producer, pre-production Raber Producer Aina Valarinc nn, Nadine King ‘Managing art editor Ovren Pul er Andrew Macinty Design director Pil Ormerod Publishing director Jonathan Metcal DKINDIA Project editor Suefs Le= [art editor Sanjay Chauhan Assistant editor Isha Sh Assistant art editors Yashashvi Choudhary ‘mar Dhami, Sonakshi Singh Jackat designer Juhi Sheth Jackets editorial coordinator Prive" Managing jackets editor Sreshih Bhattacharya DTP designer Sachin Gupts Senior DTP designer Harish Agar Senior managing editor fihan Si! Deputy managing art editor Anjana Nai Pre-production manager Saiwant Sing Fist published in Great Briain a2 by Dorling Kindersley 80 Strand, London WC2R ORL yg toting Kindersley Limited ’A Penguin Random House Company 2468109753 99420 hune/2017 Aight eserved No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored aretieval sytem, or tansmited in any orm or by any means, electron nechanieal, photocopying, ecarding or otheraise, without the pri ‘witen permission ofthe copyright owner ACIP catalogue record for this book from the Bish Libra 0-2412-86869 AWORLD OF IDEAS: SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW vn dk.com ‘m4 2 mts ~6 m8] my CAROL VORDERMAN MBE is one of Britain's best-loved TV presenters and is renowned for her mathematical skills. She has hosted numerous TV shows on science and technology, from Tomorrow's World to How 2, and was co-host of Channel 4's Countdown for 26 years. A Cambridge University engineering graduate, she has a passion for communicating science and technology and has a keen interest in co CRAIG STEELE is a specialist in Computing Science education. He is Project Manager for CoderDojo Scotland, which runs free coding clubs for young people. Craig has previously worked for the Raspberry Pi Foundation, Glasgow Science Centre, and the BBC micro:bit project. Craig's first computer was a 2X Spectrum. DR CLAIRE QUIGLEY studied Computing Science at Glasgow University, where she obtained a BSc and PhD. She has worked in the Computer Laboratory at Cambridge University and Glasgow Science Centre, and is currently working on a project to develop a music and technology resource for primary schools in Edinburgh. She is a mentor at CoderDojo Scotland. DR MARTIN GOODFELLOW has a PhD in computer science and experience of teaching coding up to university level. He has developed educational content and workshops for CoderDojo Scotland, Skills Development Scotland, Glasgow Life, and Highlands and Islands Enterprises, and has consulted on digital content for the BBC. He is currently the Scottish Ambassador for National Coding Week. DANIEL McCAFFERTY holds a degree in Computer Science from the University of Strathclyde, He has worked as a software engineer for companies big and small in industries from banking to broadcasting. Daniel lives in Glasgow with his wife and daughter and when not teaching young people to code, he enjoys cycling and spending time with family. DR JON WOODCOCK studied physics at Oxford University and computational astrophysics at the University of London. An avid coder since the age of eight, he has programmed all kinds of computers from single-chip microcontrollers to world-class supercomputers. He is author of DK‘ bestselling Computer Coding Games for Kids and has written or contributed to six other DK coding books.60 FOREWORD “© STARTING WITH PYTHON What is coding? Meet Python Installing Python Using IDLE « FIRST STEPS Your first program Variables Making decisions Loopy loops Animal Quiz Functions Fixing bugs Password Picker Modules Nine Lives — 7 Os TURTLE GRAPHICS Robot Builder Kaleido-spiral Starry Night Mutant Rainbow PLAYFUL APPS Countdown Calendar Ask the Expert Secret Messages Screen Pet GAMES IN PYTHON Caterpillar Snap Matchmaker Egg Catcher REFERENCE Project reference Glossary Index Acknowledgments Find out more at: www.dk.com/computercoding a =e nn p i | eee Lotssss get sssstarted! cae = | aWe live in a digital world, and computers are part of almost everything we do. Not so long ago, computers were bulky, noisy machines that lived mainly on desks, but now they are tiny, silent devices hidden inside our phones, cars, TVs, and even watches. We use them to work, play games, watch films, go shopping, and keep in touch with our friends and family. Today's computers are so simple to use that anyone can operate them. But not so many people know how to write the code that makes them work. Becoming a coder allows you to look under the bonnet and see how a computer really works. With a bit of practice, you can build your own apps, write your own games, or just tinker with other people’s programs and customize your own ingenious creations. As well as being an addictive hobby, coding is a skill that’s in huge demand all over the world. Learn how to code and it will set you in good stead wherever your life leads, whether you're interested in science, art, music, sport, or business. Today, there are hundreds of coding languages you can learn, from simple, drag-and- drop languages like Scratch™ to web-programming languages like JavaScript®. This book is based on Python®, one of the world’s most widely used coding languages. Equally popular with students and professionals, Python is easy to pick up yet powerful and versatile. It’s a great language to learn whether you're a beginner of moving up from a simple language like Scratch. The best way to learn to code is to get stuck in, and that's how this book is designed to work. Just follow the numbered steps and you'll be building apps, games, graphics, and puzzles in no time. Learning to code is easier if you're having fun, so we've tried to make the projects as much fun as possible. If you're new to programming, start at the beginning and work your way through. Don’t worry if you don’t understand every detail — it doesn’t matter. The more projects you build, the better you'll get. And don’t worry if your programs don’t work the first time you run them. Even the pros have to debug their work. Once you've finished building each project, there are tips on how to tweak and adapt it. Feel free to try your own hacks. With a little bit of imagination and skill, there's no limit to what a coder can achieve. CAROL VORDERMA\ Have fun coding!Starting | with Python : ad | | | i=STARTING WITH PYTHON What is coding? Computer programmers, or“coders”, are people who write step-by-step instructions that can make a computer perform a task. Coders can get computers to do sums, make music, move a robot across a room, or fly a rocket to Mars. A Performing pet ‘Acomputer can't do anything of its own accord ~ it just By learning how to code, you'll be able to write your own programs and make sits there like a dumb box until it's told exactly what to the computer do what you want. It’ a do. Because computers can't think for themselves and can _bitlike having an electronic pet that only doas they're told, coders have to do the thinking for you can teach to perform tricks! them and write their instructions carefully. Dumb boxes Programming languages In order to tell a computer what to do, you need toleam a programming language. Visual languages am are easy for beginners to learn, while professional a F, , coders use text-based languages. This book is based | a | on the popular text-based language Python. something? V Scratch V Python Scratch is a visual programming language. Python is a text-based programming It's great for creating games, animations, and language. In Python, programmers write interactive stories. You write code in Scratch code using words, abbreviations, numbers, by snapping together blocks of instructions. and symbols. Instructions are typed in using the computer's keyboard. when AM clicked Both these bits of code p> 343 do the same thing, 4 The answer to the sum XN You hit the enter/return key Is shown in the screen to see the result ina"thinks’ bubble, WHAT IS CODING? Anyone can code To be a coder you just need to learn a few basic rules and commands, and then you can start writing programs to on suit your skills and interests. If you're into science, for example, you could make an app that draws graphs from the results of your experiments. Or you could use your art skills to design an alien world for your own video game. Y Pay attention to detail IFyou're good at spot-the-difference puzzles, you'll probably be a great coder. An important skill in coding is spotting mistakes in your code. These mistakes are called bugs, and even tiny bugs can cause big problems. Eagle-eyed coders can pick out spelling mistakes and faults with the logic or order of the instructions. Debugging a program can be tricky, but learning from your mistakes is a great way Y Think logically Coders need to think logically and carefully to write good code. If the instructions aren't quite right or the steps are in the wrong order, a program won't work properly. Think through each step and make sure things happen in a logical order ~ after all, you wouldn't put your trousers on before your pants, would you! = a to improve your coding powers, Vine yo gt ” - — ‘exromeace3 : bt Keep those eyes pected! . — LINGO Bugs 7 9 Get coding Bugs are errors in code that make programs behave in unexpected ways. They are so-called because early computers sometimes went wrong when insects got stuck in their circuits! Coding may sound daunting, but learning how to do it is easy. The secret is to get stuck in. This book is designed to teach you how to code by guiding you through simple projects. Just follow the numbered steps and you'll be creating games, apps, and digital art in no time. ve 2, ity e . fo, a Y * Wu SS TES ap ¥TARTING WITH PYTHON Meet Python Why Python? Python is a great language for getting started with computer programming. Many schools and universities use it to teach coding. Here are some of the reasons that Python's so useful. It easy to read and write! A) Easy to read and write Python isa text-based computer programming language. You write the instructions using a mixture of English words, punctuation characters, symbols, and numbers. This makes Python code simple to read, write, and understand, ee 4 Works everywhere Python is portable. This means you can write and run Python code on lots of different computers. The same Python code will work on PCs, Macs, Linux machines, and Raspberry Pi computers. The programs behave the same way on each machine. Python is one of the most popular computer programming languages in the world. It was first released in the 1990s and is now used to build millions of apps, games, and websites. oe LINGO Why Python? Python isn't named after the type of snake, It's actually named after a British comedy group called “Monty Python's Flying Circus” The creator of, Python, Guido van Rossum, was a big fan of the group and their quirky humour. Python programmers often use the group's jokes and famous quotes in their code as a tribute. V Batteries included Programmers say Python has "batt. included”. This is because it comes everything you need to get coding straight away. J Handy tools Python is packed with lots of useful tools and preprogrammed code that you can use in your programs. This Is called the Standard Library. Using these tools makes it easier and quicker for you to build your own programs. > Great support Python has well-written documentation. It has a guide to getting started, a reference section for looking up what things mean, and a bunch of example code. Python in aci Python isn’t just an educational tool. It’s such a powerful program it’s used for many interesting and exciting tasks in business, medicine, science, and the media. It can even be used to control the lights and heating in your home. V Crawling the web Python is widely used on the Internet. Parts of Google's search engine are written in Python. Much of YouTube is also built using Python code. . Python? Isa serious business! ae) Fe A Serious business Python helps banks to keep track of the money in their accounts, and big store chains to set the prices of the goods they sell We've been expecting you! A Out of this world Software engineers used Python to create tools for NASA's Mission Control Centre, These tools help the crew Prepare for and monitor the progress of each mission. Pmamighty powerful program! EXPERT TIPS — Some programming languages use an interpreter. The interpreter is a program that can translate from one programming language into another. Every time you run a Python program, the interpreter translates each line of Python code into a special code that the computer can understand, known as machine code. ‘Don't worry, this won't hurt — much! A Medical marvels Python can be used to program robots to perform tticky operations. A Python-programmed robot surgeon can work more quickly than a human one, and be more accurate and less likely to make errors, Action! 4 Inthe movies Disney uses Python to automate repetitive parts of the animation process. Rather than animators carrying out the same steps over and over, they use a Python program to repeat the steps automatically. This saves work, shortening the time it takes to make a film.16 STARTING WITH PYTHON Installing Python All the projects in this book use Python 3, so make sure you download the correct version from the website. Follow the instructions that match your computer. Python on Windows Before you install Python 3 ona Windows PC, find out IDLE (short for Integrated Development Environment) is a free app that you get when you install Python. Designed for beginners, IDLE includes a basic text editor that allows you to write and edit Python code. Python ona Mac Before you install Python 3 on a Mac, check which operating system the computer uses. Click the Apple icon in the top left of the screen and choose “About this Mac” from the drop-down menu. Go to the python website Type the address below into your web browser to go to the Python website. Then click on “Downloads” to open the download page. INSTALLING PYTHON § Download Python From the downloads options, click on the latest version of Python 3 that matches your operating system. The Python.pkg file will if it uses the 32-bit or 64-bit version of windows. Click start’, right-click "Computer", and left-click “Properties” Then choose’System’ if the option appears. Download Python fH Click on the latest version of Python for Windows, beginning with the number 3. The installer file will download autornatically. Of the different installer options, select “executable installer Go to the python website Type the address below into your web browser to go to the Python website. Then click on “Downloads” to open the download page. + https://www.python.org/ + Python 3.6.0a4- 2016-08-15 | _> + Windows x86 executable installer Te + Windows x86-64 executable installer | h Bi Run the installer / Double-click the installer file to install Python. |ityounave a 32-bit —ityouhave a 64-bit version of Windows, Choose “install for all users" and click“next” at each use this installer, prompt, without changing the default settings. version of Windows, se this installer. lickthe Open IDLE installer. When the installation is finished, check that it was successful by opening the IDLE program. Go to the "Start" menu, choose “All Apps’, then select “IDLE” A window like the one below should open up. Python 3.6.0a4 Shell dit Shell. Debug Window Help [IDLE File python 3.6.0a4 (v3.6.0a4:017cf260936, Aug 15 2016, 00:4: 0) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (ntel)] on win32 Type "copyright", “credits” or “License()" for more information __ download to your Mac automatically. https://www.python.org/ + Python 3.6.0a4 - 2016-08-15 Download macOS x 64-bit/32-bit installer { XX The version number might not be ‘exactly the same as this one just make sure you download the one that hasa 3 at the beginning. Install Python You'll find the .pkg file in the “Downloads’ folder, Its icon looks like an opened parcel. Double-click it to start the installation. At the prompts, click “Continue” and then “Install” to accept the default settings. Click the package to run the installer << Never install Python or any other program unless you have permission to do so from the computer's owner. You may also need to ask the owner to provide an administration password Open IDLE 4, When the intallation is finished, check that it was during installation. successful by opening the IDLE program. Open the "Applications" folder, and then the “Python folder. Double-click “IDLE” and a window like this should appear. Python 3.6.0a4 Shell IDLE file Edit Shell Debug Window Help. mee Python 3.6.0a4 (v3.6.0a4:017¢f260936b, Aug 15 2016, 13:38:16) [GCC 4.2.1 (Apple Inc. build 5666) (dot 3)] on darwin Type “copyright, “credits” or "License()" for more information.i f - a 8 L * i . i: STARTING WITH PYTHON do Using IDLE IDLE has two different windows in which you can work. The editor window can be used to write and save programs, while the shell window runs | Python instructions immediately. , ne The shell window V Wer M aaeuttaves f . code you type can be run straight away, When you open IDLE, the shell window pops up. ned an reostages orbugs" errors) are } This is the best place to get started in Python, as displayed. You can use the shell window like a you don’t have to create a new file first. You just notepad, to test out snippets of code before type the code directly into the shell window. you add them into a bigger program. Youshould come out of your shell, more! Thisline Python 3.6.0a4 Shell m | showswhich IDE File Edit Shell Debug Window Help | version of Prthonyeu | python 3.6.0a4 (v3.6.094:017¢f260936b, Aug 15 2016, 13:38:16) igure ave, will dey {GCC 4.2.1 (Apple Inc. build 5666) (dot 3)] on darwin onwhich erat Type "copyright", “credits” or “LicenseQ” for more information. | soe Youtype | ->>>from turtle import * | have incode at hee >>>forward (200) promt verlete G0) These four lines of code are >>>forward (300) a simple drawing program = try it out for yourself. 'V Give the shell a test run ‘Type each of these code snippets into the shell window and press the enter/return key after each one. The first line displays a message and the second line does a calculation, Can you work out what the third line does? oTTh EXPERT TIPS To help you know which window you should type your code in, we've given | each window in IDLE a different colour. >>> print('I am 10 years old") >> +456*7/8 Shell window ee Editor window >>> 1 join (reversed (‘Time to code')) The editor window The shell can't save your code, so when you close the shell window the code you typed is lost forever. That's why you should use IDLE’s editor window when you work on a project. This window lets you save your code. It also has built-in tools to help you write your programs and to trouble-shoot any errors. Thenane oft You type the code in file is shown here. here. This program sncansaee LO veiw, eT ee IDLE File Edit Format Run Window for counter in range(10) : ] if (counter % 2) == 0): | print (counter) print (‘is even‘) | else: | print (counter) | print (‘is odd") Anything you tell Python to print gets displayed in the shell window. > Check Module Hello, orlal Run Module The message will % appear in the shell © EXPERT TIPS Keyboard shortcut Ahandy shortcut to run a program from the editor window is simply to press F5 on your keyboard. This is a lot quicker than af selecting “Run’ and then “Run Module’. 2 ih Da print (‘Hello, World!") person = input (‘What's your name?") print (‘Hello,", person) to print a new greeting. You can change it to a different greeting if you prefer — as polite or as rude as you like! Final task Run the code again to check it, When you type in your name and hit the enter/return key, the shell should show a personalized message. Congratulations on completing ‘This line asks for the user's name and stores it in a variable called "person’ Hello, World! User's What's your name?Josh meee Hello, Josh your first Python program! You've taken your first steps towards becoming a powerful programmer.Variables If you want to write useful code, you'll need to be able to store and label pieces of information. That's what variables do. Variables are great for all sorts of thi from tracking your score in a game to performing calculations and holding lists of items. ble A Storage box AA variable is like a box with a name label. You can store data in the box and then use the name to find the data again when you need to use it. How to create a va A variable needs a name. Think of a name that will remind you what's inside the variable. Then decide what you want to store in the variable. This is the variable’ value. Type the name, followed by an equals sign, followed by the value. We call this “assigning a value” to the variable. oT ‘This value will be stored in the variable. >>> age = 12 \ichtneett name Assign a value In the shell window, type this line of code to create the variable age and assign a value to it. Use your own age if you want. | Print the value : | Now type the line of code shown on the right >>> print (age) into the shell window. Hit the enter/return 2 key to see what happens. 4 Xe The value of age The print © function prints the value of the variable between the brackets a EXPERT TIPS Dos and don'ts + Start the variable’s name with a letter. Choosing good names for your variables will make your program easier to understand, For example, a variable tracking a player’ lives in a game could be called Lives_remaining, rather than just Lives or Lr. Variable names can contain letters, numbers, and underscores, but they should begin with a letter. Follow the rules shown here and you won't go wrong. + Any letter or number can be used in the name. | + Symbols such as -, /, #, or @ aren't allowed, + Spaces can't be used. + An underscore (_) can be used instead of a space. « Uppercase (capitals) and lowercase letters are different. Python will treat “Score” and “score” as two different variables. + Avoid words Python uses as commands, such as “print’ In coding, whole numbers are called integers, while numbers with a decimal point in them are known as floats. Programs usually count = ee 7 wv. a VARIABLES things using integers. Floats are more often onan used for measurements. QS \ 0.5 sheep 1 sheep (an integer) {a float) Using numbers Symbol Maaning Variables can be used to store numbers and do sums. + [ada You can use them with symbols to do calculations, =f subtract just like you do in maths. Some of these symbols will =| rtply be familiar, but watch out for the symbols meaning 7 divide “multiply” and "divide" - they're slightly different from X the ones you use in class. A simple calculation Type this code in a shell window. It uses numbers stored in two variables, named x and y, to carry outa simple multiplication Hit the enter/return key to get the answer. The result of the calculation value of y, Change a value To change the value of a variable, you just assign a new value to it. In your code, change the value of x to 10 and run the calculation, again. What do you expect the result to be? I Update the value Ba ‘The value of y needs to be updated to get the correct result. Type these lines. Now the code assigns the new value to y after x has been changed. If you update the value of one variable in your own programs, always check 10 see if you need to update any others. \ A. some ofthe Python maths symbols Create a new variable, x, and give it the value 6. 7 v p> x= 6 poo yex+7< >>> print) a y\ ~ Print the \ Muttiply x by 7 and store the result in y. _ Change the value of x >>> x = 10 >>> print (y) 42 \ The result hasn't changed ~ next welll find out why, Update the value of y p> x = 10 pry exe7 >>> print (y) 70Working with strings Coders use the word “string” for any data made up of a sequence of letters or other characters. Words and sentences are stored as strings. Almost all programs use strings at some point. Every character that you can type on your keyboard, and even those you can't, can be stored in a string. 4 Strings in variables Strings can be put into variables. Type this. code into the shell window. It assigns the string ‘Ally Alien’ to the variable name and then displays it. Strings must always have quotation marks at the beginning and end. a Combining strings Variables become really useful when you combine them to make new variables. If you add two strings together, you can store the combination in a new variable. Try this out. EXPERT TIPS You can use a handy trick, len, to | count the number of characters in a string (including the spaces). The command | Ten isan example of what coders call a function. (You'll use lots of functions in this book.) To find out how many characters there are in ‘Welcome toEarth, Ally ALien’, type the line below into the shell once you've created the string, then hit enter/return. >>> Len (message) 28 a \ ~ The number of characters counted ne — _l mer Astring is simply a sequence of characters, The quote marks show that _- the variable contains a string. / >>> mame = "Ally Alien’ >>> print (name) Ally Alien A — Hit the enter/return Remember the Keyto print thesting, quotes >>> name = ‘Ally Alien" \ >>> greeting = ‘Welcome to Earth, * >>> message = greeting + name >>> print (message) \ \ Welcome to Earth, Ally Alien A \ The + symbol joins one string ‘The quote marks to another. aren't shown when you printa string. Take meto your leader. Lists When you want to store a lot of data, or perhaps the order of the data is important, you may need to use alist. A list can hold many items together and keep them in order. Python gives each item a number that shows its position in the list. You can change the items in the list at any time. Multiple variables Imagine you're writing a multiplayer game and want to store the names of the players in each team. You could create a variable for each player, which might look like this... With three players per team, you'd need six variables. By Put a list ina variable but what if there were six players per team? Managing and updating so many variables would be difficult. t would be better to use a list. To create a list, you surround the items you want to store with square brackets. Try out these lists in the shell. The list items must be separated by commas. By Getting items from a list Once your data is in a list, it's easy to work with. To get an item out ofa lst, first type the name of the list. Then add the item's position in the list, putting it inside square brackets. Be careful: Python starts counting list items from 0 rather than 1, Now try getting different players’ names out of your team lists. The first player is at position 0, while the last player is at position 5. 7 me >>> rockets player_l = ‘Rory’ = Ex >>> rockets_player_3 = ‘Rachel’ >>> rockets_player_2 = ‘Rav’ planets_player_1 = ‘Peter’ planets_player_2 = ‘Pablo’ >>> planets_player_3 = ‘Polly’ >>> rockets_players = ['Rory’, ‘Rav’, "Rachel", ‘Renata’, ‘Ryan', 'Ruby"] >>> planets_players = ['Peter', ‘Pablo’, ‘Polly’, ‘Penny’, ‘Paula’, 'Patrick'] Kw \ J This list is stored in the / variable planets_players. This line gets the first item in the list, from position 0, >>> rockets_players[0] "Rory! >>> planets_players[5] "Patrick" ty A \ \ °SN this line gets the last item \ in the list, from position 5. ~ Hit enter/return to retrieve the item,Making decisions = Questions that compare The questions that computers ask themselves usually involve comparing one thing with another. For example, a computer might ask if one number is bigger than another. If it is, the computer might then decide to run a block of code that would otherwise be skipped. Every day you make decisions about what to do next, based on the answers to questions you ask yourself. For example, “Is it raining?”, “Have I done my homework?" “Am | a horse?” Computers also make decisions by asking questions. a , Are you sue you want todo that? D> Boolean values ~ Variable The answers to the questions computers ask a EEE, 216 only two possible values: True or False. Python calls these two values Boolean values, >>> answer_one = True >>> answer_to = False and they must always start with a capital letter. x You can store a Boolean value in a variable. Boolean value 7 V Logical operators These symbols tell computers to make comparisons. Programmers call them logical operators. You may have used some of them in maths. The words “and” and “or” can also be used as logical operators in computer code. In Python you can use a single equals sign or a double equals sign. They mean slightly different things. Use a single equals ign when you want to set the value of a variable. Typing age = 10, for example, sets the value of the variable age to 10. Use a double equals == sign when you want to compare two | values, asin the example below. Symbol Meaning equalto This sets the value of the variable. not equal tO Za E —|testtan | o>> age = 10 ——_this compares your 5 greater than 10: age with the variable. greater than you! >>> if age print (‘You are ten years old. *) The code prints the message if the two match. Pineapples and zebras Let's try an example using the shell. We can represent having five pineapples and two zebras by using the variables pineapples and zebras. Type these lines into the shell. This varlable stores the >>> pineapples = 5 number of pineapples. >>> zebras = 2 rK — This variable stores the number of zebras. V D> Make comparisons Now try typing the following lines of code to compare the values of the two variables. After you've typed each line, press the return key and Python will tell you if the statements are True or False. ‘The number of pineapples is ‘greater than the number of zebras. oO >>> pineapples > zebras True Statements about variables and values that use the logical operators always give us a Boolean value, such as True or False. Because of this, these statements are called Boolean expressions. All of our statements about pineapples and zebras are Boolean expressions. Variable — i Vv Logical operator >>> pineapples != zebras True 4“ N Boolean value XN Variable a MAKING DECISIONS >>> zebras < pineapples True ae Stecnamieribontonss ig than the number of pineapples. The number of pineapples and the number of zebras aren't equal. >>> pineapples == zebras False V Multiple comparisons You can use and and or to combine more than one comparison. if you use and, both parts of the comparison must be correct for the statement to be True. If you use or, only one part needs to be correct. >>> (pineapples == 3) and (zebras False None part (pineapples == 3)is Incorrect, so the statement is False. >>> (pineapples == 3) or (zebras == 2) True One partiscorrect (zebras == 2), So the statements Tve,Ride the rollercoaster Assign at the theme park says you must be over 8 years old and taller than 1.4 metres to ride the rollercoaster. Mia is 10 years old and 1.5 metres tall. Let’s use the shell to check whether she can go for a ride. Type the following lines of code to create variables for Mia’s age and height and assign the correct values to them. Type the rules for going on the rollercoaster as a Boolean expression, then hit the enter/return key. >>> age = 10 [>>> height = 1.5 These two lines / assign values to the variables, >>> (age > 8) and (height > 1.4) < True A Mia can go on the rollercoaster! You cant ride you'etoo small! But im 100 yeas old! This isa Boolean // expression meaning “older than 8 and more than 1.4 metres tal” Branching Computers often need to make decisions about which parts of a program to run. This is because most programs are designed to do different things in different situations. The route through the program splits like a path branching off into | side paths, each leading to a different place. D> School or park? Imagine you have to decide what route ‘to walk each day based on the answer to the question "ls today a weekday?" If it’s a weekday, you take the route to school if it's not, you take the route to the park. In Python, the different routes through a program lead to different blocks of code. A block can be one statement or several, all indented by four spaces. The computer uses a test called a condition to figure out which blocks it should run next, A condition is a Boolean expression (a True-or- False comparison) that helps a computer decide which route to take when it reaches a branch in the code. D> One branch Thi The simplest branching command is an 1f statement. It only has one branch, which the computer takes if the condition is True. This program asks the user to say if it's dark outside. If itis, the program pretends that the computer is going to sleep! If it's not dark, is_dark == 'y' is False, so the "Goodnight!" message isn't displayed. [> Two branches Do you want a program to do one thing if a condition’s True and another thing ifit’s False? If so, you need a command with two branches, called an if-else statement. This program asks if the user has tentacles. If they answer"Yes’, it decides they must be an octopus! if they answer No’, it decides they're human. Each decision prints a different message. > Multiple branches When there are more than two possible paths, the statement ei f (short for “else-if") comes in handy. This weather = if weather program asks the user to type print ( in the weather forecast: either elif weath “rain’, ‘snow’, or’sun’ It then chooses one of three branches Beet and weather conditions. else: print¢ cond This block runs if both — a MAKING DECISIONS is line asks the user to reply"“y" (yes) or *n” (no), is dark = input('Is it dark outside? y/n)") if is_dark y : print (‘Goodnight! Zzzzzzzzzzzzzzz....') A A Condition This branch is taken if the condition is True, — The code shows this message in the shell window. This line asks for input from the user. —_ Condition Ni / tentacles = input (‘Do you have tentacles? (n/y)') / ey if tentacles = 'y print (‘I never knew octopuses could type!') else: / { print (Greetings, human!") A this block runs ifthe condition is False. \ this block runs ifthe condition isTrve. ‘input (What is the forecast for today? (rain/snow/sun)") First condition This block runs if the train': first condition is True. "Remember your umbrella!') < jer == ‘snow < Si "Remember your woolly gloves!') < ~ Second condition "Remember your sunglasses!) | This block runs ifthe second condition is True, tions are False. A How it works An e1 if statement must always come after 1 and before e1se. In this code, e1if checks for snow only when the condition set by the 4 f statement is False. You could insert additional e11f statements to check for more types of weather.Loopy loops Computers are great at doing boring tasks without complaining. Programmers aren't, but they are good at getting computers to do repetitive work for them - by using loops. A loop runs the same block of code over and over again. There are several different types of loop. For loops When you know how many times you want to run a block of code, you can use a for loop. In this example, Emma has written a program to make a sign for her door. It prints “Emma's Room — Keep Out!!! ten times. Try out her code for yourself in the shell. (After typing the code and hitting enter/return, press backspace to remove the indent and then hit enter/return again.) Keep Ott Keep Out! “" veep Out Emma's Root Emma Room — Emma's ROOT Emma's Room ~ Thisis the loop The loop runs 10 times 7 variable. ( v >>> for counter in range(1, 11) print (‘Emma\'s Room - Keep Out!!!") K K — \ thetine that gets peated Indent the commands is called the loop body. in the body 4 spaces, V Loop variable ‘The loop variable keeps track of how many times we've gone round the loop so far. The first time round it's equal to the first number in the list specified by range (1, 11).The second time | Inython code, the word"range” | round it’s equal to the second number in the list, and so on. | followed by two numbers within When we've used all the numbers in the list, we stop looping. | brackets stands for“all the numbers from the first number to First loop Satopiiloop: Third loop one less than the second number’ | So range (1, 4) means the numbers 1, 2, and 3 - but not 4. in Emma's “Keep Out" program, range (1, 11) isthe numbers | 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, and 10, | Loop variable = 3 LW Loop variable = 1 Loop variable = 2 va a* EXPERT TIPS Ss EXPER TALLEST Escape character (\) ter ( | The backslash in Emma\ 's Room tells Python to ignore the | apostrophe so that it doesn't treat it as the quotation mark that closes the whole string. A backslash used like this is called an escape character. It tells Python not to count the next character when working out if the line makes sense or contains errors. While loops What happens if you don’t know how many times you want to repeat the code? Do you need a crystal ball or some other way of seeing into the future? No, it’s okay! You can use a whi Le loop. lean see the future, and it’s completely loopy! [> Loop condition Ahi Le loop doesn’t have a loop variable that's set to a range of values. Instead it has a loop condition. This is a Boolean expression that can be either True or False. It’s a bit like a bouncer at a disco asking you if you've got a ticket. If you have one (True), head straight for the dance floor; if you don't (False), the bouncer wor't let you in. In programming, ifthe loop condition isn't True, you won't get into the loop! Youcantcomein- ff your loop condition isnttruel V Balancing act In this example, Ahmed has written a program to keep track of how many of his troupe of acrobatic hippopotamuses have balanced on top of each other to make a tower. Read through the code and see if you can figure out how it works. _— This variable stores the ruber ofhppos This variable stores b the answer to the , Loop condition >>> hippos = 0 question “Add This line displays a message another hippo?" >>> answer = 'y showing the total number Y y of balancing hippos. >>> while answer 2 Fe Pose NO Ahmed's reply f / becomes the new Z pos = hippos + 1 t value of answer. fo print (str(hippos) + * balancing hippos!') Add another / answer = input('Add another hippo? (y/n)') <___— hippo to the number balanced,= o 7 FIRST STEPS [> How it works The loop condition in Ahmed'’s program is answer == 'y". This means that the user wants to adda hippo. In the body of the loop we add one to the number of hippos balanced, then ask the user if they want to add another. If they answer by typing “y" (for yes), the loop condition is True so we go round the loop again. If they answer"n” (no), the loop condition is False and the program leaves the loop. Infinite loops Sometimes you may want a while loop to keep going for as long as the program is running. This kind of loop is called an infinite loop. Lots of video-game programs use an infinite loop known as a main loop. Fah EXPERT TIPS If you don’t want an infinite loop, it's important to make sure that the body of a whi Le loop does something that could make the loop condition False. But don't worry - if you accidentally code an infinite loop, you can escape from it by pressing the C key while holding down the Ctrl (control) key. You may have to press Ctrl-C several times before you quit the loop. Hmm...maybe ‘Madd just one ‘more hippo? vt There isn False option L to escape the loop. >>> while True: print (‘This is an infinite loop!') A Inte infinity You make an infinite loop by setting the loop condition toa constant value: True. Because this value never changes, the loop will never exit. Try this whi Le loop in the shell. It has no. False option, so the loop will print “This is an infinite loop!” nonstop until you quit the program. Y Escaping infinity You can deliberately use an infinite loop to get input from the user. This (annoying) program asks if the user is bored. As long as they type“n’, it keeps asking the question. If they get fed up and type'y’ it tells them they'te rude and uses the break command to leave the loop! The True condition is that the (Gain >>> while True: answer = if answer print (‘How rude! input ("Are you bored yet? (y/n)') yt: con ) _\TheFalse condition ('y') triggers the break break command, Loops inside loops Can the body of a loop have another loop within it? Yes! This is called a nested loop. It's like Russian dolls, where each doll fits inside a larger doll. In a nested loop, an inner loop runs inside an outer loop. ike Russian dos — but they'ealvaysso full of themselves! SB ae a The loop variable ofthe outer loop ishooray_counter. — ~\ de another } [> One loop In this example, Emma has changed her “keep Out" program into a"Three Cheers" program that prints “Hip, Hip, Hooray!” three times. Because each cheer includes the word "Hip" twice, she uses a nested loop to print oT EXPERT TIPS SyntaxError for hip_counter in range(1, print (Hip') <— print (‘Hooray!") The loop variable of the inner loop is hip_counter. Hip — hooray_counter=1__ | ip hip_countey —_ a L Hooray! Hip << Hip aa hip_counter=2 hooray_counter = 2 Hooray! hooray counter =3 Hooray! Hip —— itp —~ hip_counte hip_counter =2 \ hip_counter=2 ™~ hip_counter =1 5 a LOOPY LOOPS The code in the body of a loop should be indented four spaces. If it isn't, Python will show an error | message and the code won't run. With nested loops (one loop inside another), the body of the inner loop must be indented an extra four spaces. Python automatically indents new lines in loops, but you should always check that each line is indented by the correct number of spaces. x] unexpected indent >>> for hooray counter in range(l, 4): The body of D2) Stree — loop is indented 4 spaces, ‘The body of the inner loop is indented another 4 spaces. <1 How it works The whole of the inner for loop is inside the body of the outer for loop. Each time we do one repeat of the outer loop, we have to do two repeats of the inner loop. This means the body of the outer loop is run three times in total, but the body of the inner loop is run six times.Animal Quiz Are you a fan of quizzes? Fancy making one yourself? Sad In this project, you'll build an animal quiz. Even though the questions are about animals, this project can be easily modified to be about any other topic. The program asks the player some questions about animals. They get three chances to answer each question — you don’t want to make the quiz too difficult! Each correct answer will score one point. At the end of the quiz, the program reveals the player's final score. - —— - Python 3.5.2 Shell Le This is how the game looks - itall happens in the shell window. Guess the Animal! Which bear lives at the North Pole? polar bear Correct answer Which is the fastest land animal? cheetah Type in your Correct answer neater Which is the largest animal? giratte jou guess incorrectly, ry, wrong answer. Try again. elephant X____ lf youguess Cl ee od = you get another go. Sorry, wrong answer. Try again. rhinoceros Wiel dae After three wrong guesses, the program shows you the correct answer. The correct answer is blue whale Your score is 2 This is your score out of. a possible 3 points. How it works This project makes use of a function - a block of code with a name that performs a specific task. A function lets you use the same code repeatedly, without having to type it all in every time. Python has lots of built-in functions, but it also lets you create functions of your own. [> Calling functions When you want to use a function, you “call it” by typing its name in your code. In Animal Quiz, you'll make a function that compares the player's quess to the true answer to see if it's correct. Youll call it for each question in the quiz. eh UINGo When comparing the player's guess to the correct answer, it shouldn't matter if the player types capital letters or lower-case letters ~ all | that matters is that the words are the same. | This isn’t true for all programs. For example, if a program that checks passwords ignores case, | the passwords might become easier to guess, and less secure. However, in Animal Quiz, it doesn't matter if the player answers "bear” or “Bear” - both will be recognized as correct. V Animal Quiz flowchart The program keeps checking whether there are any questions left to ask and whether the player has used up all of their chances. The score is stored in a variable during the game. Once all the questions have been answered, the game ends.ey Bp ga ens FIRST STEPS = noe ANIMAL QUIZ Putting it together It’s now time to build your quiz! First you'll create the questions and the mechanism for checking the answers. Then you'll add the code that gives the player three attempts to answer each question. Create a new file Open IDLE. Under the File menu, select New File. Save the file as “animal_quiz.py’. Create the score variable Type in the code shown here to create a variable called score and set its starting value to 0. Introduce the game Next create a message to introduce the game to the player. This will be tthe first thing that the player sees, on the screen. Run the code Now try running the code. From the Run menu, choose Run Module. What happens next? You should see the welcome message in the shell window. Ask a question (user input) The next line of code asks a question and waits for the player's response. The answer (the user input) is saved in the variable guess1.Run the code to make sure the question appears. {hope tm not ‘venomous ~ I've ust bitten my tonguet File ieee players scofs, ‘This phrase will appear in the shell window. print (‘Guess the Animal!) Run Python Shell Check Module print (‘Guess the Animal!") guessl = input (‘Which bear Lives at the North Pole? ') | XS The variable guess1 stores whatever the user types in, = * | Build a check function The next taskis to check f the player’s ‘guess is correct. Type this code at the top of your script, before score =0. ‘The code creates a function, called check_guess (), that will checkif the player's guess matches the correct answer. The two words in brackets are parameters’ - bits of information the function needs. When you call a function, you assign (give) values to its parameters. Wa Call the function Now add a line at the end of the script to “call” (run) the check_guess () function. This code tells the function to use the player's guess as the first parameter and the phrase “polar bear’ as the second parameter. By Test the code Try running the code again and type in the correct answer. The shell window should look like thi 9 ‘Add some more questions It takes more than one question to make a quiz! ‘Add two more questions to the program, following The first line gives << the function a name global score and parameters. if guess ae print (‘Correct answer") Eee a global variable, Itensures that def check_guess (guess, answer) score = score +1 enor changes to the variable can be ‘Add 1 to the Don't forget seen throughout player's score. the brackets. the whole program. guess1 = input('Which bear lives at the North Pole? ") check_guess (guess1, ‘polar beat NO Correct answer Guess the Animal! Which bear lives at the North Pole? polar bear Correct answer Letme add some more. the same steps as before. We'll store the player's answersin the variables guess2 and guess3. score = 0 print(‘Guess the Animal!') guess1 = input("Which bear lives at the North Pole? ') check_guess(guess1, ‘polar bear’) <_—=——— ~~ tocheck guess. guess2 = input(‘Hhich is the fastest land animal? *) check_guess (guess2, 'cheetah') guess3 = input (‘Which is the Large: -check_guess(guess3, ‘blue whale") st animal? ') Soke First question ‘This tells the program This tells the program to check guess3.. i RST STEPS Display the score The next line of code will reveal the player's score in a message when the quiz ends. Add it to the bottom of the file, under the last question ANIMAL Give the player more chances The player currently has only one chance to get the answer right. You can make it a bit easier for them by giving them three chances to answer a question. Change the check_guess () function to look like this. = input (‘Which is tl blue whale’) + str(score)) A Howit works For this step, you have to use the str () function to change a number into a string. This is because Python shows an error if you try to add a string and an integer (whole number) together. n print (Your score is * Ignore case What happens if the player types ‘Lion’ instead of “Iion"? Will they still get a point? No, the code will tell them it's the wrong answer! To fix this, you need to make your code smarter. Python has a Lower () function, which changes words into all lower-case characters. In your code, replace if guess == answer: with the line shown on the right in bold. Test the code again Run your code for a third time. Try typing the correct answers using a mixture of capitals and lower-case letters and see what happens. Guess the animal! Which bear lives at the North Pole? polar bea Correct answer Wich is the fastest land animal? Cheetah Correct answer Which is the largest animal? BLUE WHALE Correct answer Your score is 3 def e largest animal? ') the player's scor iton the screen, heck_gi __This creates a message giving re and displays or s (guess, answer) global score if guess. Lower () print( score \ change this answer .lower Q : Correct answer’) = score +1 se A How it works Both the guess and the answer will be converted into lower-case characters before being checked. This ensures that the code works whether the player uses all capital letters, all lower-case letters, or a mixture of the two. ___ The case is ignored when deciding whether an answer is correct or not. def check_guess(guess, answer) global score 5 Awhile loop runs the check still_guessing = True <— code three times or until the atte a0 player gets the answer correct, whichever comes first. while still_guessing and attempt < 3: if guess.lower() == answer. lower Q: > Make sure each line of nerWetcoreeca secre code has the correct indent score = score + 1 ride nue ie Rese The else variable asks the ae e _— player to enter another answer eT sere i eee ifthey get it wrong, if attempt <2 guess = input (‘Sorry wrong answer. Try again. ') Deca eeree eal eater tae __- Add 1 to the number of guesses the player has had. if attempt print (‘The correct answer is ' + answer) \ this code alisplays the correct score = 0 answer after three wrong guesses. 4. How it works To know if the player has got the right answer, you need to create a variable called sti11_guessing. You then set the variable to True to show that the right answer hasn't been found. It's set to False when the player gets the right answer. Don't forget to save This variable will hold one of only your work. , two values: True or False Largest animal? | don't know. Giveme three guesses!a FIRST STEPS Display the score bottom of the file, under the last question. guess3 = input('Wnich is the largest anima check guess (guess3, ‘blue whale’) print (‘Your score is ' + str(score)) A. How it works —_ For this step, you have to use the str Q function to change a number into a string. This is because Python shows an error if you try to add a string and an integer (whole number) together. 1 Ignore case What happens if the player types ‘Lion’ instead of “lion”? Will they stil get a point? No, the code will tell them it’s the wrong answer! To fix this, you need to make your code smarter. Python hasa Lower () function, which changes words into all lower-case characters. In your code, replace if guess == answer: with the line shown on the right in bold. 2) Test the code again Run your code for a third time. Try typing the lower-case letters and see what happens. Guess the animal! Which bear lives at the North Pole? polar Correct answer Which is the fastest Land animal? Cheetah Correct answer Which is the largest animal? BLUE WHALE Correct answer Your score is 3 The next line of code will reveal the player’s score in a message when the quiz ends. Add itto the correct answers using a mixture of capitals and _ This creates a message giving the player's score and displays iton the screen. or def check_guess(guess. answer) global score if guess.lower() == answer. lower 0 7 print(‘Correct answer’) {score Both the guess and the answer will be converted into lower-case characters before being checked. This ensures that the code works whether the player uses all capital letters, all lower-case letters, or a mixture of the two. bear ——_____ The case is ignored when deciding whether an answer is correct of not, ANIMAL Qu Give the player more chances The player currently has only one chance to get the answer right, You can make it a bit easier for them by giving them three chances to answer a question. Change the check_guess () function to look like this. This variable will hold one of only Don't forget to save two values: True or False. your work. def check_guess(guess, answer) global score — Awhi Le loop runs the check code three times or until the player gets the answer correct ~ whichever comes first. still_guessing = True <— attempt = 0 while still_guessing and attempt < if guess.lower() == answer. lower (: Make sure each ine of print (‘Correct answer’) code has the correct indent. score = score +1 _ The else variable asks the still_guessing = False player to enter another answer else: es if attempt < 2: guess = input('Sorry wrong answer. Try again. *) attempt = attempt + 1 if attempt == 3 print('The correct answer is ' + answer) \ \___ This code displays the correct score = 0 ~~ answer after three wrong guesses. A How it works To know if the player has got the right answer, you need to create a a, variable called st 111_guess ing. Largest animal? You then set the variable to True Idon'thnow. to show that the right answer hasn't yeme thre qusses! been found. It’s set to False when the ", player gets the right answer.a FIRST STEPS | Hacks and tweaks | Mix up your quiz! Make it longer or harder, use different types of questions, or even change the subject of the quiz. You can try any or all of these hacks and tweaks, but remember to save each one as a separate Python Hl file so that you don’t mess up the original game. 7 fl Make a true-or-false quiz This code shows how to create true-or-false questions, which have only two possible answers. > Change the difficulty To make the quiz harder, give the player fewer chances to get the right answer. If you make a true-or-false quiz, you'll only want the player to have one guess per question, and perhaps no more than two guesses per question ifi’s a multiple-choice quiz. Can you figure out what you'd need to change the highlighted numbers to for true-or-false or multiple-choice questions? it would be. ean! | Notas easy asl thought > Choose another topic Create a quiz on a different subject, such as general knowledge, sports, movies, or musi You could even make a quiz about your family or friends and include some cheeky questions, like “Who has the most annoying laugh?” answer . lower () 5 a ANIMAL QUIZ <1 Better score for fewer attempts. Reward the player for getting the answer right with Fewer guesses. Give 3 points if they get it in one go, 2 points for needing two attempts, and 1 point for using all three chances. Make this change to the line that updates the score. Now it will give 3 points minus the number of unsuccessful attempts. If the player gets the answer right first time, 3 - 0 = 3 points are replaces added to their score; on the second guess, its 3 - 1=2 score + 1. points; and on the third guess, it’s 3- 2=1 point. guess = input (‘Mice are mammals. True or False? ') check_guess (guess, 'True") def check_guess (guess, answer) global score still_guessing = True oo this number, while still_guessing and attempt < 3: attempt = 0 if guess.lower() == answer. 1ower(): print(‘Correct Answer’) score = score +1 still_guessing = False ali if attenpt < elena guess = input (‘Sorry wrong answer.Try again. ') Change this number. attempt = attempt +1 Sola ape print(’The correct answer is ' + answer) Change this number. if attempt =oe FIRST STEPS Functions Programmers love shortcuts that make writing code easier. One of the most common shortcuts is to give a name to a block of code that does an especially useful job. Then, instead of having to type out the whole block each time you need it, you simply type its name. These named blocks of code are called functions. There are a number of special words that coders use when talking about functions, Call To use a function. Define When you use the def keyword and write the code for a function, coders say you “define” the function. You also define a variable when you first, set its value. How to use a function Using a function is also known as “calling" it. To call a function, you just type the function's name, followed by a set of brackets that contain any parameters you want the function to work with. Parameters are a bit like variables that belong to the function, and they allow you to pass data between different parts of your program. When a function doesn't need any parameters, the brackets are left empty. Parameter A piece of data (information) that you give toa function to use. Return value Data that you pass from a function back to the main code. You get it using the keyword return. Built-in functions Pe eae ile Python has a number of built-in C functions that you can use in your code. >>> name = input (‘What is your name?*) These are helpful tools that let you do lots of tasks, from inputting information and showing messages on the screen to converting one type of data into another. You've already used some of Python's built-in functions, such as print Q and input (). Have a look at these examples. Why not try them out in the shell? What is your name? Sara >>> greeting = ‘Hello’ + nane >>> print (greeting) wetto sara ‘This shows the content of the variable greet ing on the screen, A input Q and print 0 “These two functions are like opposites. The input () function lets the user give instructions or data to the program by typing them in.The print Q function sends output to the user by displaying messages or results on the screen. V maxQ The max © function selects the maximum value from the parameters you give it. Hit the enter/return key to see the value on the screen. This function takes multiple parameters, which must be separated by commas. >>> max(10, 16, 30, 21, 25, 28) 30 t hk \\ the maximum values the highest number in the brackets. \ Always separate multiple parameters with commas. V minO ‘The function min () does the opposite of max). It selects the minimum value from the parameters you put inside its brackets. Experiment for yourself with the max and min) functions. >>> min(A0, 16, 30, 21, 25, 28) 10 \ when you hit the enter/return key, the code shows you the lowest number. Another way of calling Some of the different types of data we've come across so far, such as integers, strings, and lists, have their own functions. These functions must be called in a special way. You type the data or the name of the variable holding the data, followed by a dot, the function's name, and finally brackets. Test out these code snippets in the shell. ie ‘The function has two parameters. \ >>> message = "Python makes me happy’ / >>> message. replace (‘happy", °:D' S happy with =D. "Python makes me A replaced Two parameters are needed for this function: the first is the part of a string you want to replace, while the second isthe string you want to put nits place. The function returns a new string withthe replacements made. Don't forget Empty brackets mean the dot. that no parameters: \ are needed >>> ‘bang’ :upper () “BANG’ \ A upper Q The upper () function takes an existing string and returns a new string in which all the lower-case characters are changed to upper-case (capitals) This is the new string, all in capitals. The list of numbers _— stored in the variable v >>> countdown = [1, 2, 3] >>> countdown.reverse() The list isnow >>> print (countdown) aie (ayien alice ee A reverse() Use this function when you want to reverse the order of the items in a list. Here, its used to reverse a list of numbers stored in the variable countdown. Instead of printing the list as [1, 2, 3], the function makes it print [3, 2, 1] "a FUNCTIONSRST STEPS Making a function The best functions have a clear purpose and a good name that explains what they do - think of the check_guess()_ = function you used in Animal Quiz. Follow these instructions to create, or es Define the function Create a new file in IDLE. Save it as"functions.py” Type these lines into the editor window. An indent is added at the start of each line in the function. Save the file again, then run the code to see what happens. The name of There are no the function — parameters yet ‘define’, a function that calculates the y fo number of seconds in a day and then ERR ao. prints the answer on the screen. fee minutes = hours + 60 “Ti Ceara det eile Fythion that! seconds = minutes + 60 \ Variables this block of code is a function, print (seconds) <— aw This line prints the value of the variable seconds. ‘The lines after the name must be Indented 4 spaces, to show Python that, print_seconds_per_day 0 they are part of the function. 86400 K This command calls the function. / \ x the numberof secondsin day appears inthe shel Add parameters If you want to give your function any values to work With, you put them inside the brackets as parameters. For example, to find out the total number of seconds in a particular number of days, change your code to look like this, The function now has the parameter days. You can specify the number of days when you call the function. Try it out yourself “EXPERT TIPS It's important to define your functions before Jet print_seconds_per_ day (days) :<— you use them in your hours = days * 24 <~ The function's main code. When you're Bee ea ces ay parameter learning to code with fe This ine uses the Python, it’s helpful to put seconds = minutes * 60 parameter days, your functions at the top of your file, after any import statements. By doing this, you won't make the mistake of trying to call a function before you've defined it. print(seconds) —~ Gives a value (7) to the parameter days print_seconds_per_day(7) Ne Existing lines of code are shown in grey and new lines of cade in bold, 604800 ‘ \ tne nuber seconds in? ds Return a value Once you have a function that does something useful, you'll want to use the results from that function in the rest of your code. You can get values out of a function by “returning” them, Change your code as shown here to get the return value from your function. You should rename the function to match its new purpose. Don't try to run the code just yet. a Store and use the return value You can store the return value from a function ina variable to use later in your code. Add this code under your function. it stores the return value and uses it to calculate the number of milliseconds (thousandths of a second). Try it out and experiment with the number of days. The return value is stored in the yn variable total_seconds, So THis Ine prints the value of milliseconds. i ‘This is the number of milliseconds in 7 days. "EXPERT TIPS In Step 3, you changed the name of your function from print_seconds_per_day() to convert_days_to_seconds (). Just like with variables, it’s important that the name you use accurately explains what the function does. This makes your code much easier to understand. a FUNCTIONS def convert_days_to_seconds (days) : hours = days * 24 minutes = hours * 60 i i — The function's seconds = minutes * 60 Renae return seconds » The keyword return gives the D NN The line that called the function value of the variable seconds. is deleted, as the function now has anew name and purpose. This calls the function and gives a value (7) to the parameter days. def convert_days_to_seconds (days) hours = days * 24 minutes = hours * 60 seconds = minutes * 60 return seconds | y total_seconds = convert_days_to_seconds (7) milliseconds = total_seconds » 1000 print (milliseconds) 604800000 ‘The total number of seconds / is converted into milliseconds and stored in the variable mi 11 i seconds, The rules for naming functions are similar to those for variables. Function names can contain letters, numbers, and underscores, but they should begin with a letter. If there are several words in the name, the words should be separated by underscores.