A programming language is a formal system that allows humans to communicate with
computers to perform tasks, solve problems, or create software. It consists of a set of rules,
syntax, and semantics used to write code that a computer can interpret and execute.
Introduction to Python Programming
Python is a high-level, interpreted programming language known for its simplicity and
readability. It is widely used for web development, data science, artificial intelligence,
automation, and more.
Why Learn Python?
Easy to Learn – Python has a simple syntax similar to English, making it beginner-friendly.
Versatile – Used in web development, data science, machine learning, automation, and more.
Large Community Support – A vast community offers help, libraries, and frameworks.
Cross-Platform – Runs on Windows, macOS, and Linux.
1. Easy to Learn and Use
Python has simple, easy-to-understand syntax that closely resembles English.
Example:
# Print a message
print("Hello, World!")
This code prints Hello, World!, and you can see how simple and clear the syntax is.
2. Interpreted Language
Python code is executed line by line by the interpreter, making it easier to test and debug.
Example:
# Python code is executed line by line
x = 10
y = 20
print(x + y) # Outputs 30
3. Dynamically Typed
Python doesn't require explicit declaration of data types. The interpreter infers the type based on
the value assigned.
Example:
# Dynamic typing
x = 10 # Integer
x = "Hello" # String
Here, x initially holds an integer but is later assigned a string, demonstrating dynamic typing.
4. High-level Language
Python abstracts away low-level details, such as memory management, allowing developers to
focus on solving problems.
Example:
# You don't need to manage memory directly
a = [1, 2, 3] # List object created automatically
5. Portable
Python programs can run on any platform without modification.
Example: A Python script written on Windows can be run on Linux or macOS without any
changes to the code.
# This code works across all platforms
print("This is cross-platform!")
6. Extensive Standard Library
Python comes with a rich standard library that makes many tasks easy, like file handling, web
programming, and more.
Example:
import math
# Use of the math module
result = math.sqrt(16)
print(result) # Outputs 4.0
7. Garbage Collection
Python automatically manages memory with garbage collection, which frees unused memory.
python
CopyEdit
# Python automatically cleans up unused objects
a = [1, 2, 3]
b = a
del a # 'a' is deleted, but 'b' still holds the list
EXECUTION MODE
1. Interactive Mode (REPL - Read, Eval, Print, Loop)
In interactive mode, Python code is executed line by line. This is useful for testing small
snippets of code or learning Python interactively.
● How to Use: You can start the Python interpreter by simply typing python or python3
(depending on your installation) in your terminal/command prompt. Then, you can enter
commands one by one.
Example:
$ python
>>> print("Hello, World!")
Hello, World!
>>> x = 5
>>> print(x + 10)
15
In this mode:
● You can enter Python commands and immediately see the result.
● It's typically used for quick testing, debugging, or learning.
2. Script Mode
In script mode, Python code is saved in a .py file, and you run the file as a whole. This is the
most common way to run Python programs.
● How to Use: Write your Python code in a text editor and save it with the .py extension
(e.g., program.py). Then, run it from the command line using the Python interpreter.
Example:
Save the following code in a file program.py:
# program.py
print("Hello, World!")
x = 10
print(x + 5)
1.
Run the script from the terminal:
$ python program.py
Hello, World!
15
In this mode:
● Code is executed all at once, starting from the top to the bottom of the file.
● It's used for larger, more complex applications.
Python Keywords
Python keywords are predefined reserved words that have a special meaning in the language.
These words cannot be used as variable names, function names, or identifiers.
Here’s a simplified list of Python keywords:
1. Control Flow:
○ if, else, elif – Conditional statements
○ for, while – Looping structures.
○ break, continue – Control loop flow.
○ pass – A placeholder, does nothing.
2. Logical Operators:
○ and, or, not – Logical operations for combining conditions.
3. Functions and Classes:
○ def – Defines a function.
○ return – Returns a value from a function.
○ class – Defines a class.
4. Exception Handling:
○ try, except, finally – Used for handling exceptions (errors).
○ raise – Used to manually raise exceptions.
5. Boolean Values:
○ True, False – Boolean values representing truth and falsity.
○ None – Represents a null or no value.
6. Loop Control (Flow):
○ in – Used to check if an element is in a collection (e.g., list, tuple).
○ is – Used to test object identity.
7. Variable Scope:
○ global – Refers to global variables.
○ nonlocal – Refers to variables in the nearest enclosing scope.
8. Lambda Functions:
○ lambda – Creates anonymous functions (functions without a name).
9. Imports:
○ import, from – Used to import modules or parts of modules.
10.Context Management:
○ with – Used for handling resources like files, ensuring they are properly closed
after use.
11.Other Keywords:
○ assert – Used for debugging (checks if a condition is true).
○ del – Deletes objects or variables.
○ yield – Used in generator functions to return values lazily.
Quick Example:
# if-else statement
x = 10
if x > 5:
print("x is greater than 5")
else:
print("x is 5 or less")
● if: Checks a condition.
● else: Alternative if the condition is false.
Identifiers in Python
An identifier in Python is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module, or other
object. Essentially, it's a name that you give to a program element to distinguish it from others.
Rules for Identifiers in Python
Python has some specific rules for naming identifiers. Here’s a quick summary:
1. First Character:
○ An identifier must begin with a letter (A-Z, a-z) or an underscore (_).
○ It cannot begin with a digit (0-9).
2. Valid identifiers:
○ x, variable, _myVar
○ my_function, MyClass
3. Invalid identifiers:
○ 123abc (cannot start with a digit)
4. Subsequent Characters:
○ After the first character, identifiers can consist of letters (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9),
and underscores (_).
5. Valid identifiers:
○ my_variable_1, var123
○ myFunction, _my_var
6. Case Sensitivity:
○ Python identifiers are case-sensitive. For example, myvar, MyVar, and MYVAR
are all different identifiers.
Example:
myVar = 10
myvar = 20
print(myVar) # Outputs: 10
print(myvar) # Outputs: 20
Variables in Python
A variable in Python is a symbolic name that is used to store data or values. A variable allows
you to refer to data in memory by a name, and you can manipulate the data by modifying the
value associated with that variable.
How to Declare Variables in Python
In Python, you don’t need to explicitly declare a variable type. The type of the variable is
inferred based on the value assigned to it.
Basic Syntax:
variable_name = value
● variable_name: The name you assign to the variable (must follow the identifier rules).
● value: The value stored in the variable (can be a number, string, list, etc.).
Examples of Variable Assignments:
# Integer variable
x = 10
# String variable
name = "Alice"
# Float variable
price = 19.99
# Boolean variable
is_valid = True
# List variable
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
Comments in Python
In Python, comments are used to explain the code and make it easier to understand. They are
ignored by the Python interpreter, meaning they do not affect the program’s execution.
Comments are primarily used for documentation and clarification.
Types of Comments in Python
There are two types of comments in Python:
1. Single-line comments
2. Multi-line comments
1. Single-Line Comments
A single-line comment starts with the hash symbol (#). Everything following the # on that line
will be treated as a comment.
Syntax:
# This is a single-line comment
Example:
# This is a comment explaining the following line of code
x = 10 # Assigning the value 10 to variable x
2. Multi-Line Comments
Python does not have a specific syntax for multi-line comments. However, you can use multiple
single-line comments or docstrings for multi-line comments.
a) Multiple Single-Line Comments:
You can use multiple # symbols for each line of the comment.
Example:
# This is a multi-line comment
# explaining the next part of the code.
# Each line starts with a '#'.
x = 10
y = 20
b) Docstrings (Triple-quoted strings):
Although docstrings are primarily used for documentation (especially for functions, classes,
and modules), they can also act as multi-line comments. They are enclosed within triple quotes
(""" or ''').
Example:
"""
This is a multi-line comment using triple quotes.
It can span multiple lines and is often used for documentation.
"""
x = 10
y = 20
DATA TYPES
1. Numbers
In Python, numbers are one of the fundamental data types and are used to represent numerical
values.
Types of Numbers in Python:
● Integers (int):
○ Represents whole numbers, both positive and negative.
○ Examples: -5, 0, 42
x = 42
print(type(x)) # <class 'int'>
● Floating-point numbers (float):
○ Represents real numbers with decimal points.
○ Examples: 3.14, -0.5, 2.0
y = 3.14
print(type(y)) # <class 'float'>
● Complex numbers (complex):
○ Represents numbers with a real and an imaginary part (in the form a + bj).
○ Examples: 3 + 4j, 5 - 2j
z = 3 + 4j
print(type(z)) # <class 'complex'>
2. Sequences
Sequences are ordered collections of items. There are several sequence types in Python, such
as lists, tuples, and strings.
Types of Sequences in Python:
● Lists (list):
○ Ordered, mutable (can be changed) collection of elements. Can store elements
of different data types.
○ Examples: [1, 2, 3], ["apple", "banana"]
my_list = [1, 2, 3]
print(type(my_list)) # <class 'list'>
● Tuples (tuple):
○ Ordered, immutable (cannot be changed) collection of elements. Can store
elements of different data types.
○ Examples: (1, 2, 3), ("apple", "banana")
my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)
print(type(my_tuple)) # <class 'tuple'>
● Strings (str):
○ Ordered collection of characters. Immutable.
○ Examples: "hello", 'abc'
my_string = "hello"
print(type(my_string)) # <class 'str'>
● Range (range):
○ Represents an immutable sequence of numbers, commonly used for looping.
○ Examples: range(5), range(1, 10, 2)
my_range = range(5)
print(type(my_range)) # <class 'range'>
3. Sets
A set is an unordered collection of unique elements. Sets are mutable (can be modified after
creation) and don’t allow duplicate elements.
Characteristics of Sets:
● Unordered: No specific order is maintained.
● Mutable: Can be changed after creation.
● No duplicates: Each element must be unique.
Examples:
my_set = {1, 2, 3}
print(type(my_set)) # <class 'set'>
# Adding an element
my_set.add(4)
# Removing an element
my_set.remove(3)
print(my_set) # {1, 2, 4}
4. None
The None type represents the absence of a value or a null value. It is often used to indicate that
a variable or function does not have a meaningful value.
Characteristics of None:
● Represents "no value" or "nothing."
● Often used as a default return value for functions that do not explicitly return a value.
Example:
x = None
print(type(x)) # <class 'NoneType'>
def my_function():
return None
result = my_function()
print(result) # None
5. Mappings
A mapping is a collection of key-value pairs, where each key is unique, and each key maps to a
corresponding value. The most common type of mapping in Python is the dictionary.
Dictionaries (dict):
● Unordered collection of key-value pairs.
● Keys are unique and immutable (e.g., strings, numbers, tuples).
● Values can be any type of data (mutable or immutable).
Example:
my_dict = {"name": "John", "age": 30, "city": "New York"}
print(type(my_dict)) # <class 'dict'>
# Accessing value by key
print(my_dict["name"]) # John
# Adding a new key-value pair
my_dict["job"] = "Engineer"
# Removing a key-value pair
del my_dict["age"]
print(my_dict) # {'name': 'John', 'city': 'New York', 'job':
'Engineer'}
Summary of Data Types
Data Type Example Description
Numbers 42, 3.14, 3+4j Integer, float, and complex
numbers.
Sequence [1, 2, 3], (1, 2, 3), Ordered collections (lists,
"hello" tuples, strings).
Set {1, 2, 3} Unordered collection of
unique elements.
None None Represents the absence of a
value.
Mapping {"name": "John", Key-value pairs (dictionaries).
"age": 30}
1. Mutable Data Types
A mutable data type can be changed or modified after it is created. These types allow you
to modify their contents without creating a new object.
Examples of Mutable Data Types:
● List (list):
○ Lists are mutable, meaning you can modify their elements, append new
elements, or remove existing ones.
lst = [1, 2, 3]
print("Original list:", lst)
# Modify an element
lst[0] = 10
print("Modified list:", lst) # Output: [10, 2, 3]
# Add an element
lst.append(4)
print("List after append:", lst) # Output: [10, 2, 3, 4]
# Remove an element
lst.remove(2)
print("List after remove:", lst) # Output: [10, 3, 4]
● Set (set):
○ Sets are mutable collections that allow adding and removing elements.
my_set = {1, 2, 3}
print("Original set:", my_set)
# Add an element
my_set.add(4)
print("Set after add:", my_set) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4}
# Remove an element
my_set.remove(2)
print("Set after remove:", my_set) # Output: {1, 3, 4}
● Dictionary (dict):
○ Dictionaries are mutable, so you can modify, add, or remove key-value pairs.
my_dict = {"name": "Alice", "age": 25}
print("Original dictionary:", my_dict)
# Modify a value
my_dict["age"] = 26
print("Dictionary after modification:", my_dict) # Output: {'name':
'Alice', 'age': 26}
# Add a new key-value pair
my_dict["city"] = "New York"
print("Dictionary after adding:", my_dict) # Output: {'name':
'Alice', 'age': 26, 'city': 'New York'}
# Remove a key-value pair
del my_dict["name"]
● print("Dictionary after deletion:", my_dict) # Output: {'age':
26, 'city': 'New York'}
●
2. Immutable Data Types
An immutable data type cannot be changed once it is created. Any
modification results in the creation of a new object.
Examples of Immutable Data Types:
● Integer (int):
○ Integers are immutable. Any operation on an integer creates a new integer.
x = 10
print("Original integer:", x)
# Modify the value by adding to it
x = x + 5
print("Modified integer:", x) # Output: 15 (a new integer object is
created)
● Float (float):
○ Like integers, floats are immutable. Operations on them create new float objects.
y = 3.14
print("Original float:", y)
# Modify the value by adding to it
y = y + 1.0
print("Modified float:", y) # Output: 4.14 (a new float object is
created)
● String (str):
○ Strings are immutable. Any operation that tries to modify the string results in a
new string object being created.
s = "hello"
print("Original string:", s)
# Modify the string by concatenating
s = s + " world"
print("Modified string:", s) # Output: "hello world" (a new string
object is created)
● Tuple (tuple):
○ Tuples are immutable. You cannot change, add, or remove elements after
creation.
t = (1, 2, 3)
print("Original tuple:", t)
# Trying to modify an element will raise an error
# t[0] = 10 # TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item
assignment
# However, you can create a new tuple by concatenating
t = t + (4,)
● print("Modified tuple:", t) # Output: (1, 2, 3, 4) (a new tuple
object is created)
Summary of Mutable vs Immutable Data Types:
Data Type Example Mutable? Operations that
Modify
int 10, -5, 42 No New object
created
float 3.14, -0.5 No New object
created
str "hello", "world" No New object
created
tuple (1, 2, 3), (4, No New object
5) created
list [1, 2, 3], ["a", Yes In-place
"b"] modification
set {1, 2, 3}, {4, Yes In-place
5, 6} modification
dict {"name": Yes In-place
"Alice", "age": modification
25}
OPERATORS IN PYTHON
Here’s a detailed explanation of the operators in Python, broken down into categories like
Arithmetic, Relational, Assignment, Logical, Identity, and Membership operators.
1. Arithmetic Operators
These operators are used to perform basic mathematical operations:
Operator Description Example Output
+ Addition 5 + 3 8
- Subtraction 5 - 3 2
* Multiplication 5 * 3 15
/ Division (float) 5 / 3 1.6667
// Floor Division 5 // 3 1
% Modulus (Remainder) 5 % 3 2
** Exponentiation 5 ** 3 125
Explanation:
● / performs float division, always returns a float.
● // performs floor division, truncating the decimal part.
● % returns the remainder when dividing.
● ** is used for exponentiation.
2. Relational (Comparison) Operators
These operators are used to compare two values and return a boolean result (True or False):
Operator Description Example Output
== Equal to 5 == 3 False
!= Not equal to 5 != 3 True
> Greater than 5 > 3 True
< Less than 5 < 3 False
>= Greater than or equal 5 >= 3 True
to
<= Less than or equal to 5 <= 3 False
Explanation:
● These operators compare two values and return either True or False.
3. Assignment Operators
These operators are used to assign values to variables:
Operator Description Example Output
= Assigns the value x = 10 x = 10
+= Adds and assigns x += 5 → x = x + x = 15
5
-= Subtracts and x -= 3 → x = x - x = 7
assigns 3
*= Multiplies and x *= 2 → x = x * x = 14
assigns 2
/= Divides and assigns x /= 2 → x = x / x = 7
2
//= Floor divides and x //= 2 → x = x x = 3
assigns // 2
%= Modulus and assigns x %= 3 → x = x % x = 1
3
**= Exponentiates and x **= 2 → x = x x = 49
assigns ** 2
Explanation:
● These operators perform an operation and assign the result back to the variable.
● For example, x += 5 is equivalent to x = x + 5.
4. Logical Operators
These operators are used to combine multiple conditional statements and return a boolean
result:
Operator Description Example Output
and Returns True if both True and False False
operands are True
or Returns True if at True or False True
least one operand is
True
not Reverses the logical not True False
state of the operand
Explanation:
● and returns True only if both conditions are true.
● or returns True if at least one condition is true.
● not reverses the result (negates it).
5. Identity Operators
These operators are used to compare the memory location of two objects:
Operator Description Example Output
is Returns True if both x is y True or False
variables refer to the
same object
is not Returns True if both x is not y True or False
variables do not refer
to the same object
Explanation:
● is checks if both variables refer to the same object in memory.
● is not checks if the variables do not refer to the same object.
6. Membership Operators
These operators are used to test if a value is present in a sequence (like a string, list, or tuple):
Operator Description Example Output
in Returns True if value 3 in [1, 2, 3] True
is found in the
sequence
not in Returns True if value 4 not in [1, 2, True
is not found in the 3]
sequence
Explanation:
● in returns True if the value is found in the sequence (list, string, etc.).
● not in returns True if the value is not found in the sequence.
Summary of Python Operators
Operator Category Operators Example
Arithmetic +, -, *, /, //, %, ** 5 + 3, 6 // 2, 3 ** 2
Relational ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= 5 == 3, 7 > 2
Assignment =, +=, -=, *=, /=, //=, %= , x = 10, x += 5
**=
Logical and, or, not True and False, not
True
Identity is, is not x is y, x is not y
Membership in, not in 3 in [1, 2, 3], 4 not
in [1, 2]
identity membership
ChatGPT said:
Here’s a detailed explanation of the operators in Python, broken down
into categories like Arithmetic, Relational, Assignment, Logical,
Identity, and Membership operators.
1. Arithmetic Operators
These operators are used to perform basic mathematical operations:
Operator Description Example Output
+ Addition 5 + 3 8
- Subtraction 5 - 3 2
* Multiplication 5 * 3 15
/ Division (float) 5 / 3 1.6667
// Floor Division 5 // 3 1
% Modulus 5 % 3 2
(Remainder)
** Exponentiation 5 ** 3 125
Explanation:
● / performs float division, always returns a float.
● // performs floor division, truncating the decimal part.
● % returns the remainder when dividing.
● ** is used for exponentiation.
2. Relational (Comparison) Operators
These operators are used to compare two values and return a boolean
result (True or False):
Operator Description Example Output
== Equal to 5 == 3 False
!= Not equal to 5 != 3 True
> Greater than 5 > 3 True
< Less than 5 < 3 False
>= Greater than or 5 >= 3 True
equal to
<= Less than or 5 <= 3 False
equal to
Explanation:
● These operators compare two values and return either True or
False.
3. Assignment Operators
These operators are used to assign values to variables:
Operator Description Example Output
= Assigns the x = 10 x = 10
value
+= Adds and assigns x += 5 → x = x + x = 15
5
-= Subtracts and x -= 3 → x = x - x = 7
assigns 3
*= Multiplies and x *= 2 → x = x * x = 14
assigns 2
/= Divides and x /= 2 → x = x / x = 7
assigns 2
//= Floor divides x //= 2 → x = x x = 3
and assigns // 2
%= Modulus and x %= 3 → x = x % x = 1
assigns 3
**= Exponentiates x **= 2 → x = x x = 49
and assigns ** 2
Explanation:
● These operators perform an operation and assign the result back
to the variable.
● For example, x += 5 is equivalent to x = x + 5.
4. Logical Operators
These operators are used to combine multiple conditional statements
and return a boolean result:
Operator Description Example Output
and Returns True if True and False False
both operands
are True
or Returns True if True or False True
at least one
operand is True
not Reverses the not True False
logical state of
the operand
Explanation:
● and returns True only if both conditions are true.
● or returns True if at least one condition is true.
● not reverses the result (negates it).
5. Identity Operators
These operators are used to compare the memory location of two
objects:
Operator Description Example Output
is Returns True if x is y True or False
both variables
refer to the
same object
is not Returns True if x is not y True or False
both variables
do not refer to
the same object
Explanation:
● is checks if both variables refer to the same object in memory.
● is not checks if the variables do not refer to the same object.
6. Membership Operators
These operators are used to test if a value is present in a sequence
(like a string, list, or tuple):
Operator Description Example Output
in Returns True if 3 in [1, 2, 3] True
value is found
in the sequence
not in Returns True if 4 not in [1, 2, True
value is not 3]
found in the
sequence
Explanation:
● in returns True if the value is found in the sequence (list,
string, etc.).
● not in returns True if the value is not found in the sequence.
Summary of Python Operators
Operator Category Operators Example
Arithmetic +, -, *, /, //, %, ** 5 + 3, 6 // 2, 3 ** 2
Relational ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= 5 == 3, 7 > 2
Assignment =, +=, -=, *=, /=, x = 10, x += 5
//=, %= , **=
Logical and, or, not True and False, not
True
Identity is, is not x is y, x is not y
Membership in, not in 3 in [1, 2, 3], 4 not
in [
Expressions in Python
An expression in Python is any valid combination of variables, values,
operators, and function calls that Python can evaluate and compute a
result for. An expression is executed, and it results in a value.
Examples of expressions:
● Arithmetic Expression: 5 + 3
● Relational Expression: x > y
● Logical Expression: x and y
Operator Precedence in Python
Python evaluates operators based on precedence (priority). Operators
with higher precedence are evaluated before those with lower
precedence. When operators have the same precedence, they are
evaluated based on their associativity. Most operators in Python are
left-associative, meaning they are evaluated from left to right,
except for exponentiation (**), which is right-associative.
Order of Precedence (Highest to Lowest)
Example 1: Exponentiation and Multiplication
result = 2 + 3 * 4 ** 2
print(result)
● Explanation: The order of precedence here is:
1.First, the exponentiation 4 ** 2 (resulting in 16).
2.Then, the multiplication 3 * 16 (resulting in 48).
3.Finally, the addition 2 + 48 (resulting in 50).
Output: 50
Example 2: Parentheses Override Precedence
result = (2 + 3) * 4
print(result)
● Explanation: Parentheses have the highest precedence, so the
expression inside the parentheses is evaluated first:
1.2 + 3 = 5.
2.Then, 5 * 4 = 20.
Output: 20
Example 3: Comparison and Logical Operators
x = 5
y = 10
result = x < y and y > 5
print(result)
● Explanation: The logical and has a lower precedence than
relational operators. The expression is evaluated as:
1.First, x < y is evaluated (which is True).
2.Then, y > 5 is evaluated (which is also True).
3.Finally, the and operator is applied between the two
results, resulting in True.
Output: True
In Python, a statement is a line of code that performs a specific
action. Each statement in Python can either be a simple statement or a
compound statement, depending on its structure.
Simple Statements: These are the basic building blocks of Python code.
A simple statement consists of just one expression that is evaluated
or executed.
Examples:
Assignment Statement: Assigning a value to a variable.
python
CopyEdit
x = 10
○
Expression Statement: Any expression that is evaluated.
python
CopyEdit
print("Hello, World!")
Return Statement: Used to return a value from a function.
python
CopyEdit
return x
Input and Output in Python
ChatGPT said:
In Python, input and output refer to how you get data from the user
(input) and how you display results or information back to the user
(output). Let me explain both concepts in detail.
1. Input in Python
In Python, the input() function is used to get data from the user. The
data entered by the user is always returned as a string. If you need
it in another data type (like an integer or float), you'll need to
convert it.
Basic Input:
python
CopyEdit
# Getting input from the user
name = input("Enter your name: ")
print("Hello, " + name + "!")
In this case, the user is prompted to enter their name, and the
program outputs a greeting.
Converting Input to Other Types:
If you need the input as a number (e.g., integer or float), you can
convert the string to the desired type using int() or float().
python
CopyEdit
# Getting input and converting it to an integer
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
print("You are", age, "years old.")
In this example, the input is first taken as a string, and then it's
converted to an integer using int().
2. Output in Python
To display output, Python uses the print() function. The print()
function can display strings, variables, and even the results of
operations.
Basic Output:
python
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# Outputting a simple string
print("Hello, World!")
This will display:
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Hello, World!
Outputting Variables:
You can print variables directly:
python
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# Outputting the value of a variable
name = "Alice"
print(name)
This will display:
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Alice
String Formatting:
If you want to include variables inside a string more neatly, you can
use string formatting, such as f-strings (available in Python 3.6 and
later).
# Using f-strings for formatting
name = "Alice"
age = 25
print(f"Hello, {name}. You are {age} years old.")
This will display:
sql
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Hello, Alice. You are 25 years old.
Combining Input and Output:
You can combine both input and output to make the program interactive.
# Taking user input and displaying it
name = input("Enter your name: ")
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
print(f"Hello {name}, you are {age} years old.")
In this program:
1.The user is asked for their name and age.
2.The program outputs a message using the input values.
Summary:
● input(): Takes user input (always as a string).
● print(): Displays output to the
In Python, input and output refer to how you get data from the user
(input) and how you display results or information back to the user
(output). Let me explain both concepts in detail.
1. Input in Python
In Python, the input() function is used to get data from the user. The
data entered by the user is always returned as a string. If you need
it in another data type (like an integer or float), you'll need to
convert it.
Basic Input:
# Getting input from the user
name = input("Enter your name: ")
print("Hello, " + name + "!")
In this case, the user is prompted to enter their name, and the
program outputs a greeting.
Converting Input to Other Types:
If you need the input as a number (e.g., integer or float), you can
convert the string to the desired type using int() or float().
# Getting input and converting it to an integer
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
print("You are", age, "years old.")
In this example, the input is first taken as a string, and then it's
converted to an integer using int().
2. Output in Python
To display output, Python uses the print() function. The print()
function can display strings, variables, and even the results of
operations.
Basic Output:
# Outputting a simple string
print("Hello, World!")
This will display:
CopyEdit
Hello, World!
Outputting Variables:
You can print variables directly:
# Outputting the value of a variable
name = "Alice"
print(name)
This will display
Alice
String Formatting:
If you want to include variables inside a string more neatly, you can
use string formatting, such as f-strings (available in Python 3.6 and
later).
# Using f-strings for formatting
name = "Alice"
age = 25
print(f"Hello, {name}. You are {age} years old.")
This will display:
Hello, Alice. You are 25 years old.
Combining Input and Output:
You can combine both input and output to make the program interactive.
# Taking user input and displaying it
name = input("Enter your name: ")
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
print(f"Hello {name}, you are {age} years old.")
In this program:
1.The user is asked for their name and age.
2.The program outputs a message using the input values.
Summary:
● input(): Takes user input (always as a string).
● print(): Displays output to the user.
Type Conversion in Python: Implicit and Explicit
In Python, type conversion refers to the process of
converting a value from one data type to another. There are
two types of type conversion:
1.Implicit Type Conversion (Type Coercion)
2.Explicit Type Conversion (Type Casting)
1. Implicit Type Conversion (Type Coercion)
● Definition: Implicit conversion is done automatically by Python.
It happens when Python converts one data type to another without
any intervention from the programmer.
● When it happens: It typically occurs when you mix different data
types in an operation, and Python automatically promotes the
lower precision type to the higher precision type.
Example:
# Implicit Conversion (Integer to Float)
a = 5 # Integer
b = 2.0 # Float
result = a + b # Python automatically converts 'a' (int) to float
before adding.
print(result) # Output: 7.0 (float)
● In this case, Python automatically converts the integer a to a
float before performing the addition.
2. Explicit Type Conversion (Type Casting)
● Definition: Explicit conversion is done manually by the
programmer. You use functions like int(), float(), str() to
convert values from one type to another.
● When it happens: When you want to control or specify how data
should be converted.
Example:
# Explicit Conversion
a = 5.75
b = int(a) # Explicitly convert float to integer (drops decimal
part)
print(b) # Output: 5
# Convert integer to string
num = 123
str_num = str(num) # Explicitly convert integer to string
print(str_num) # Output: '123'
● In this case, int() explicitly converts a float to an integer
(removing the decimal part), and str() converts an integer to a
string.
Key Differences:
Implicit Conversion Explicit Conversion
Done automatically by Python. Done manually by the programmer.
Happens when combining lower and Programmer explicitly decides to
higher precision types. convert types using functions.
Example: Adding an integer to a Example: Using int(), float(),
float converts the integer to a str() to convert types.
float.
Summary:
● Implicit Conversion: Python does it automatically for you (e.g.,
when mixing integers and floats).
● Explicit Conversion: You do it manually using functions like
int(), float(), and str().
DEBUGGING
In Python, errors are issues that arise when your code doesn't behave
as expected or fails to execute. Errors in Python generally fall into
three categories:
1.Syntax Errors
2.Runtime Errors
3.Logical Errors
Let’s dive into each of them and understand how to identify and fix
them:
1. Syntax Errors
● Definition: A syntax error occurs when Python cannot understand
the code due to incorrect syntax. This typically happens when you
write code that does not follow Python’s grammar rules.
● Common Causes:
○ Missing punctuation like parentheses, colons, commas, etc.
○ Incorrect indentation.
○ Misspelled keywords or variable names.
Example:
print("Hello, World!) # SyntaxError: EOL while scanning string
literal
● In this case, the string is missing the closing quotation mark
("), which leads to a syntax error.
Fix: Correct the syntax:
print("Hello, World!") # Corrected
● How to Identify: Python gives a SyntaxError message, usually with
a description of the problem and the line where it occurred.
2. Runtime Errors
● Definition: A runtime error occurs during the execution of the
program (when the program is running). These errors happen when
the code runs but encounters problems that prevent it from
completing successfully.
● Common Causes:
○ Division by zero.
○ Accessing an index in a list that doesn't exist.
○ File operations that fail (e.g., file not found).
○ Null or undefined values being used in an operation.
Example:
x = 10
y = 0
result = x / y # RuntimeError: Division by zero
● In this case, trying to divide by zero will cause a
ZeroDivisionError.
Fix: Handle the error by checking for conditions or using try-except
blocks:
x = 10
y = 0
if y != 0:
result = x / y
else:
print("Cannot divide by zero")
● How to Identify: Python provides an error message that includes
the error type (e.g., ZeroDivisionError, IndexError) and a
description of what went wrong.
3. Logical Errors
● Definition: A logical error occurs when the code runs
successfully without crashing, but the output is not what you
expected. These errors do not raise exceptions or error messages
but cause incorrect behavior in your program.
● Common Causes:
○ Incorrect formula or algorithm used.
○ Incorrect conditions in loops or conditionals.
○ Wrong assumptions about data types or structures.
Example:
def calculate_area(radius):
area = radius + 2 * 3.14 * radius # Wrong formula for area
return area
print(calculate_area(5)) # Output: 35.14 (incorrect, should be 78.5)
● In this case, the formula is wrong. The correct formula for the
area of a circle is π * radius^2, but the code incorrectly uses
radius + 2 * π * radius.
Fix: Correct the logic:
def calculate_area(radius):
area = 3.14 * radius * radius # Correct formula
return area
print(calculate_area(5)) # Output: 78.5
● How to Identify: Logical errors are often the hardest to find
since the code runs without crashing, but the results are wrong.
You need to carefully trace through the logic and verify that the
steps and formulas are correct. This can be done using debugging
tools or print statements to inspect the intermediate results.
Summary of Differences:
Type of Error Cause Example How to Fix
Syntax Error Incorrect syntax print("Hello Correct the
(e.g., missing World! (missing syntax (e.g.,
parentheses, closing quote). add missing
misspelled quote).
keywords).
Runtime Error Errors that x = 10 / 0 Handle errors
happen while the (division by with try-except
program is zero). or proper
running (e.g., checks.
division by
zero).
Logical Error Code runs but area = radius + Correct the
produces 2 * 3.14 * logic (e.g., fix
incorrect output radius (wrong the formula).
(e.g., wrong area formula).
formula, wrong
assumptions).
PROGRAM
1.PROGRAM TO PRINT THE POSITIVE DIFFERENCES OF TWO NUMBERS.
# Take input from the user for two numbers
num1 = float(input("Enter the first number: "))
num2 = float(input("Enter the second number: "))
# Calculate the positive difference using absolute value
positive_difference = abs(num1 - num2)
# Print the result
print("The positive difference between the two numbers is:",
positive_difference)
Explanation:
1.User Input: We use input() to get two numbers from the user. The
input is converted to float to handle decimal numbers as well.
2.Calculate the Positive Difference: We calculate the absolute
difference using Python’s built-in abs() function. This function
ensures that the difference is always positive, regardless of the
order of numbers.
3.Output the Result: The positive difference is printed to the
console.
Example:
If you input:
● First number: 10
● Second number: 4
The output will be:
The positive difference between the two numbers is: 6.0
2. Write a program to create a simple calculator performing only
four basic operations.
3.Program to find the larger of two pre specified numbers.
4.Program to print the characters in the string using Python for
loop.
5.Program to print numbers in a given sequence using for loop.
6. Program to print even numbers in the sequence using for loop.