Deform 3 d v6.0

DEFORMTM 3D Version 6.0
User’s Manual

5038 Reed Road
Columbus, Ohio, 43220
Tel (614) 451-8330
Fax (614) 451-8325
Email support@deform.com

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Table of Contents
PREFACE TO THIS MANUAL ............................................................................. 6
Chapter 1. Overview of DEFORM ............................................................................... 7
1.1 DEFORM family of products...............................................................................................7
1.2 Capabilities .........................................................................................................................8
1.3. Analyzing manufacturing processes with DEFORM .......................................................11
1.4. Before you begin .............................................................................................................11
1.5. Geometry representation.................................................................................................12
1.6. The DEFORM system .....................................................................................................13
1.7. Pre-processing ................................................................................................................14
1.8. Creating input data ..........................................................................................................14
1.9. File system ......................................................................................................................15
1.10. Running the simulation..................................................................................................17
1.11. Post-processor ..............................................................................................................17
1.12. Units ..............................................................................................................................17
Chapter 2. Pre-Processor.......................................................................................... 19
2.1. Simulation Controls ..........................................................................................................19
2.1.1. Main controls...........................................................................................................................20
2.1.2. Step Controls ..........................................................................................................................23
2.1.3. Advanced Step Controls .........................................................................................................25
2.1.4. Stopping Controls....................................................................................................................29
2.1.5. Remesh Criteria ......................................................................................................................30
2.1.6. Iteration Controls.....................................................................................................................31
2.1.7. Processing Conditions ............................................................................................................36
2.1.8. Advanced Controls..................................................................................................................39
2.1.9. Control Files ............................................................................................................................43
2.2 Material Data ....................................................................................................................45
2.2.1. Phases and mixtures................................................................................................................46
2.2.2. Elastic data..............................................................................................................................47
2.2.3. Thermal data ...........................................................................................................................50
2.2.4. Plastic Data.............................................................................................................................51
2.2.5. Diffusion data ..........................................................................................................................59
2.2.6. Hardness data [MIC] ...............................................................................................................61
2.2.7. Grain growth/recrystallization model .......................................................................................62
2.2.8. Advanced material properties..................................................................................................68
2.2.9. Material data requirements......................................................................................................68
2.3. Inter Material Data...........................................................................................................71
2.3.1. Transformation relation (PHASTF)..........................................................................................71
2.3.2. Kinetics model (TTTD) ............................................................................................................72
2.3.3. Latent heat (PHASLH) ............................................................................................................77
2.3.4. Transformation induced volume change (PHASVL)................................................................78
2.3.5. Transformation plasticity (TRNSFP)........................................................................................79
2.3.6. Other Transformation Data......................................................................................................81

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2.4 Object Definition ...............................................................................................................81
2.4.1. Adding, deleting objects ..........................................................................................................82
2.4.2. Object name (OBJNAM) .........................................................................................................84
2.4.3. Primary Die (PDIE)..................................................................................................................84
2.4.4. Object type (OBJTYP).............................................................................................................85
2.4.5. Object geometry......................................................................................................................87
2.4.6. Object meshing .......................................................................................................................95
2.4.7. Object material ......................................................................................................................106
2.4.8. Object initial conditions .........................................................................................................106
2.4.9. Object properties...................................................................................................................107
2.4.10. Object boundary conditions.................................................................................................114
2.4.11. Contact boundary conditions...............................................................................................118
2.4.12. Object movement controls...................................................................................................118
2.4.13. Object node variables .........................................................................................................132
2.4.14. Object element variables.....................................................................................................139
2.5. Inter Object Definition....................................................................................................149
2.5.1. Inter object Interface .............................................................................................................150
2.5.2. Positioning.............................................................................................................................156
2.5.3. Inter object boundary conditions ...........................................................................................158
2.6. Database Generation ....................................................................................................159
Chapter 3. Running Simulations.............................................................................. 161
3.1. Interactive and batch modes .........................................................................................161
3.2. Switching between Solvers (Conjugate-Gradient and Sparse)Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3. Running MPI..................................................................................................................162
3.4. Email the Result ............................................................................................................163
3.5. Starting the simulation...................................................................................................163
3.6. Simulation graphics .......................................................................................................163
3.7. Add to Queue (Batch Queue)........................................................................................164
3.8 Process Monitor ............................................................................................................166
3.9. Stopping a simulation ....................................................................................................166
3.10. Troubleshooting problems...........................................................................................167
3.10.1. Message file messages........................................................................................................167
3.10.2. Simulation aborted by user..................................................................................................167
3.10.3. Cannot remesh at a negative step ......................................................................................167
3.10.4. Remeshing is highly recommended ....................................................................................168
3.10.5. Program Stopped: Negative Jacobian at El. ......................................................................168
3.10.6. Solution does not converge.................................................................................................169
3.10.7. Stiffness matrix is non-positive definite ...............................................................................172
3.10.8. Zero pivot ............................................................................................................................172
3.10.9. Extrapolation of data ...........................................................................................................172
3.10.10. Bad Element Shape ..........................................................................................................173
3.10.11. Inconsistent Step Number.................................................................................................173
Chapter 4: Post-Processor ...................................................................................... 175
4.1. Post-Processor Overview..............................................................................................175
4.2 Graphical display............................................................................................................176
4.2.1. Window layout.......................................................................................................................176

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4.3. Post-Processing Summary............................................................................................185
4.3.1. Simulation Summary .............................................................................................................186
4.3.2. State Variable........................................................................................................................187
4.3.3. Point tracking ........................................................................................................................194
4.3.4. Load stroke curves................................................................................................................196
4.3.5. Coordinate Systems..............................................................................................................197
4.3.6. Step Selection & Manipulation ..............................................................................................198
4.3.7. Steps list ...............................................................................................................................200
4.3.8. View Changes Within Viewport .............................................................................................201
4.3.9. Coordinate System Selection ................................................................................................202
4.3.10. Rotation...............................................................................................................................203
4.3.11. Coordinate Axis View ..........................................................................................................203
4.3.12. Point Selection ....................................................................................................................203
4.3.13. Multiple Viewports ...............................................................................................................204
4.3.14. Nodes..................................................................................................................................204
4.3.15. Elements .............................................................................................................................205
4.3.16. Viewport ..............................................................................................................................207
4.3.17. Data Extraction....................................................................................................................208
4.3.18. Flownet ...............................................................................................................................209
4.3.19. Mirroring..............................................................................................................................213
Chapter 5: Elementary Concepts in Metalforming and Finite Element Analysis....... 216
Chapter 6: User Routines........................................................................................ 228
User-Defined FEM Routines ............................................................................................................228
User-Defined Post-Processing Routines..........................................................................................231
6.1. User defined FEM routines ...........................................................................................232
6.2. User defined post-processing routines..........................................................................251
Quick Reference ...................................................................................................... 256
Hot Forming ............................................................................................................. 260
Appendix A: Running DEFORM in text mode ......................................................................267
Appendix B: Inserting DEFORM™ Animations in Powerpoint Presentations ......................271
Appendix C: DETAILS OF MOVEMENT CONTROLS IN SPIN.KEY ..................................273
Appendix D: Data Files.........................................................................................................275
Appendix E: 2D to 3D Conversion Utility..............................................................................277
Appendix F: Fracture with Element Deletion and Damage Softening..................................279
Appendix G: Rotating Work piece Simulations ....................................................................284
Appendix H: Sheet Forming in DEFORM-3D.......................................................................293
Appendix I: Eulerian treatment of the 3D rolling process.....................................................302
Appendix J: Preventing leakage of nodes in sectioned simulations ....................................303
Appendix K: The Double Concave Corner Constraint .........................................................306
Appendix L: Rolling Simulation Overview (In Progress) ......................................................309
Appendix M: Checking the forming loads results of a simulation.........................................310
Appendix N: Model set up for Steady state machining process from the DEFORM Pre-
Processor. .............................................................................................................................312
Appendix O: Document on constructing linear friction simulations ......................................320
Appendix P: On Using Spring-Loaded Dies .........................................................................329

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Appendix Q: THE DEFORM ELASTO-PLASTIC MODEL ...................................................331
Appendix P: Setting Up Multiple Processor Simulations......................................................337

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Preface to this manual
This manual describes the features and capabilities of the DEFORM-3D system.
It also contains a description of the inputs and actions required to setup problems
and run simulations. If you have not used DEFORM before we would recommend
that you go through the lab manuals first for an introduction on how to use the
system and how to run different types of simulations. The labs for DEFORM-3D,
DEFORM-HT are provided as PDF (Portable document format) documents which
can be viewed using Adobe Acrobat provided with DEFORM. All keywords which
are used in DEFORM-3D are documented in the keyword reference manuals
which is also provided as a PDF document. All documents can be accessed from
the help menus in the main program, pre-processor, and post-processor.
Overview of DEFORM
presents an overview of the DEFORM family of products.
Analyzing manufacturing processes with DEFORM
describes how to use DEFORM products to analyze manufacturing
processes.
The DEFORM system
introduces the DEFORM-3D system and describes the components that
make up the system.
Pre-Processor
describes the layout of the DEFORM Pre-Processor.
Running Simulations
describes how to run simulations and also how to handle errors that occur
during simulations.
Post-Processor
describes post-processing results from simulations and how to interpret
results.
User Routines
describes user FORTRAN routines in detail. DEFORM allows the user to
write FORTRAN programs to describe the flow stress, die speeds, damage
accumulation, and other features, as well as defining and storing new
variables which can be tracked in the post-processor along with the standard
DEFORM variables.
Release Notes
contains release notes.

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Chapter 1. Overview of DEFORM
DEFORM is a Finite Element Method (FEM) based process simulation system
designed to analyze various forming and heat treatment processes used by
metal forming and related industries. By simulating manufacturing processes on
a computer, this advanced tool allows designers and engineers to:
 Reduce the need for costly shop floor trials and redesign of tooling and
processes
 Improve tool and die design to reduce production and material costs
 Shorten lead time in bringing a new product to market
Unlike general purpose FEM codes, DEFORM is tailored for deformation
modeling. A user friendly graphical user interface provides easy data preparation
and analysis so engineers can focus on forming, not on learning a cumbersome
computer system. A key component of this is a fully automatic, optimized
remeshing system tailored for large deformation problems.
DEFORM-HT adds the capability of modeling heat treatment processes,
including normalizing, annealing, quenching, tempering, aging, and carburizing.
DEFORM-HT can predict hardness, residual stresses, quench deformation, and
other mechanical and material characteristics important to those that heat treat.

1.1 DEFORM family of products

DEFORM-2D (2D)
Available on popular UNIX platforms (HP, SGI, SUN, DEC) as well as personal
computers running Windows-NT/2000/XP or Linux. Capable of modeling plane
strain or axisymmetric parts with a simple 2 dimensional model. A full function
package containing the latest innovations in Finite Element Modeling, equally
well suited for production or research environments.

DEFORM-3D (3D)
Available on popular UNIX (HP, SGI, SUN, DEC) platforms, as well as personal
computers running Windows-NT/2000/XP or Linux. DEFORM-3D is capable of
modeling complex three dimensional material flow patterns. Ideal for parts which
cannot be simplified to a two dimensional model.

DEFORM-F2 (2D)
Available on personal computers running Windows NT/2000/XP. Capable of
modeling-two dimensional axisymmetric or plane strain problems. Suitable for
small to mid-sized shops starting in Finite Element Modeling.

DEFORM-F3 (3D)
Available on personal computers running Windows NT/2000/XP. A powerful
three-dimensional modeling package for modeling cold, warm and hot forging
processes.

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DEFORM-HT
Available as an add-on to DEFORM-2D and DEFORM-3D. In addition to the
deformation modeling capabilities, DEFORM-HT can model the effects of heat
treating, including hardness, volume fraction of metallic structure, distortion,
residual stress, and carbon content.

1.2 Capabilities

Deformation
 Coupled modeling of deformation and heat transfer for simulation of cold,
warm, or hot forging processes (all products).
 Extensive material database for many common alloys including steel,
aluminum, titanium, and super-alloys (all products).
 User defined material data input for any material not included in the
material database (all products).
 Information on material flow, die fill, forging load, die stress, grain flow,
defect formation and ductile fracture (all products).
 Rigid, elastic, and thermo-viscoplastic material models, which are ideally
suited for large deformation modeling (all products).
 Elastic-plastic material model for residual stress and spring back
problems. (Pro, 2D, 3D).
 Porous material model for modeling forming of powder metallurgy
products (Pro, 2D, 3D).
 Integrated forming equipment models for hydraulic presses, hammers,
screw presses, and mechanical presses (all products).
 User defined subroutines for material modeling, press modeling, fracture
criteria and other functions (2D, 3D).
 FLOWNET (2D, PC, Pro) and point tracking (all products) for important
material flow information.
 Contour plots of temperature, strain, stress, damage, and other key
variables simplify post processing (all products).
 Self contact boundary condition with robust remeshing allows a simulation
to continue to completion even after a lap or fold has formed (2D, Pro).
 Multiple deforming body capability allows for analysis of multiple
deforming work pieces or coupled die stress analysis. (2D, Pro, 3D).
 Fracture initiation and crack propagation models based on well known
damage factors allow modeling of shearing, blanking, piercing, and
machining (2D, 3D).

Heat Treatment
 Simulate normalizing, annealing, quenching, tempering, and carburizing.
Normalizing (not available yet)

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Heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature above the transformation
range and cooling in air to a temperature substantially below the
transformation range.
Annealing
A generic term denoting a treatment, consisting of heating to and holding
at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate, used
primarily to soften metallic materials. In ferrous alloys, annealing usually
is done above the upper critical temperature, but the time-temperature
cycles vary both widely in both maximum temperature attained and in
cooling rate employed.
Tempering (not available yet)
Reheating hardened steel or hardened cast iron to some temperature
below the eutectoid temperature for the purpose of decreasing hardness
and increasing toughness.
Stress relieving
Heating to a suitable temperature, holding long enough to reduce residual
stresses, and then cooling slowly enough to minimize the development
of new residual stresses.
Quenching
A rapid cooling whose purpose is for the control of microstructure and
phase products.
 Predict hardness, volume fraction metallic structure, distortion, and carbon
content.
 Specialized material models for creep, phase transformation, hardness
and diffusion.
 Jominy data can be input to predict hardness distribution of the final
product.
 Modeling of multiple material phases, each with its own elastic, plastic,
thermal, and hardness properties. Resultant mixture material properties
depend upon the percentage of each phase present at any step in the
heat treatment simulation.
DEFORM models a complex interaction between deformation, temperature, and,
in the case of heat treatment, transformation and diffusion. There is coupling
between all phenomenons, as illustrated in the figure below. When appropriate
modules are licensed and activated, these coupling effects include heating due to
deformation work, thermal softening, and temperature controlled transformation,
latent heat of transformation, transformation plasticity, transformation strains,
stress effects on transformation, and carbon content effects on all material
properties.

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Figure 1: Relationship between various DEFORM modules.

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1.3. Analyzing manufacturing processes with DEFORM
DEFORM can be used to analyze most thermo-mechanical forming processes,
and many heat treatment processes. The general approach is to define the
geometry and material of the initial work piece in DEFORM, then sequentially
simulate each process that is to be applied to the work piece.
The recommended sequence for designing a manufacturing process using
DEFORM
 Define your proposed process
 Final forged part geometry
 Material
 Tool progressions
 Starting work piece/billet geometry
 Processing temperatures, reheats, etc.
 Gather required data
 Material data
 Processing condition data
 Using the DEFORM pre-processor, input the problem definition for the first
operation
 Submit the data for simulation
 Using the DEFORM post-processor, review the results
 Repeat the preprocess-simulate-review sequence for each operation in
the process
 If the results are unacceptable, use your engineering experience and
judgment to modify the process and repeat the simulation sequence.

1.4. Before you begin
Before you begin work on your DEFORM simulation, spend some time planning
the simulation. Consider the type of information you hope to gain from the
analysis. Are temperatures important? What about die fill? Press loads? Material
deformation patterns? Ductile fracture of the part? Die failure? Buckling? Can the
part be modeled as a two dimensional part, or is a three dimensional simulation
necessary? Having a definite goal will help you design a simulation which will
provide the information most vital to understanding your manufacturing process.

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1.5. Geometry representation

Figure 2: Axisymmetric and plane strain examples.

DEFORM simulations can be run either as two dimensional (2D, PC, Pro) or
three dimensional (3D) models. In general, 2D models are smaller, easier to set
up, and run more quickly than 3D models. Frequently, the added detail of a 3D
model is not worth the additional time required over a 2D simulation if the
process can reasonably be represented in 2D.
There are two 2D geometry representations: axisymmetric and plane strain.
Axisymmetric geometries assume that the geometry of every plane radiating out
from the centerline is identical. Plane strain requires that there is no material flow
in the out of plane direction, and that flow in every plane parallel to the section
modeled is identical. Figure 2 illustrates axisymmetric and plane strain models.
Objects that are closely approximated by axisymmetric or plane strain models
can also be modeled in 2D by neglecting minor variations. For example, if the
head shape is not critical a hex head bolt can be modeled as axisymmetric by
defining a head radius which maintains constant volume (radius =
0.525*(distance across flats)). A gradually tapering part such as a turbine blade
can be modeled by modeling several plane strain sections.

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Figure 3: Buckling.

Buckling of cylindrical parts is a fully three dimensional process, and must be
modeled as such if such behavior is expected. An axisymmetric simulation will
not show buckling, even if it will occur in the actual process (Figure 3).
Parts which cannot be simplified to 2D must be modeled as 3D.

1.6. The DEFORM system
The DEFORM system consists of three major components:
1. A pre-processor for creating, assembling, or modifying the data required to
analyze the simulation, and for generating the required database file.
2. A simulation engine for performing the numerical calculations required to
analyze the process, and writing the results to the database file. The
simulation engine reads the database file, performs the actual solution
calculation, and appends the appropriate solution data to the database
file. The simulation engine also works seamlessly with the Automatic
Mesh Generation (AMG) system to generate a new FEM mesh on the
work piece whenever necessary. While the simulation engine is running, it
writes status information, including any error messages, to the message
(.MSG) and log (.LOG) files.
3. A post-processor for reading the database file from the simulation engine
and displaying the results graphically and for extracting numerical data.

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1.7. Pre-processing
The DEFORM preprocessor uses a graphical user interface to assemble the data
required to run the simulation. Input data includes

Object description
Includes all data associated with an object, including geometry, mesh,
temperature, material, etc.

Material data
Includes data describing the behavior of the material under the conditions
which it will reasonably experience during deformation.

Inter object conditions
Describes how the objects interact with each other, including contact, friction,
and heat transfer between objects.

Simulation controls
Includes instructions on the methods DEFORM should use to solve the
problem, including the conditions of the processing environment, what
physical processes should be modeled, how many discrete time steps should
be used to model the process, etc.

Inter material data
Describes the physical process of one phase of a material transforming into
other phases of the same material in a heat treatment process. For example,
the transformation of austenite into pearlite, banite, and martensite.

1.8. Creating input data
There are several ways to enter data into the DEFORM pre-processor.
Depending on the requirements of a particular problem, a combination of the
following methods will frequently be used.

Manual input
The pre-processor menus contain input fields for nearly every possible data input
in DEFORM. The user can enter, view, or edit any of these values. Discussions
of each field are contained in the reference section of this manual.

Keyword file input
Most of the data fields in the DEFORM pre-processor correspond directly to a
DEFORM keyword. Individual keywords describe very specific information about
a particular object characteristic, simulation control, material characteristic, or
inter-object relationship. Keyword data can be saved in a keyword (.KEY) file. A

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keyword file is a human readable (ASCII) representation of DEFORM simulation
data.
The typical format of a keyword is:
[keyword name] [keyword parameters] [default data]
[data]
[data]...
A keyword file may contain a complete simulation data set, or it may contain only
one or a few specific keywords.

Assembling keyword files
When a keyword file is read into the pre-processor, only the specific data fields
listed in that keyword are changed; the remainder is unchanged. Thus, it is
possible to assemble a complete set of problem data by loading one keyword file
that contains only data for one object, another keyword file that contains material
data, etc.
To save specific elements of a keyword file, it is necessary to save the entire file,
then use a text editor such as Notepad, vi, emacs, or equivalent to delete
unwanted information. The keyword file load and save features on the main pre-
processor menu load or save an entire data set. To load partial keyword files,
use the Keyword, Load option from the File menu.

Other file inputs
Various data types, particularly part geometries and material data, can be read
from appropriate format files.

Modifying problem data
Solution or input step data from any stored step in a database file can be read
into the pre-processor, modified, and either appended to an existing database, or
written to a new database file.

Viewing specific problem data
Most problem data stored in the database file is accessible in the post-processor.
However, certain specific information such as boundary conditions or inter-object
contact conditions is displayed differently in the pre-processor. When debugging
a problem which is not running properly, it is sometimes useful to use the pre-
processor data display to view this information.

1.9. File system
The primary data storage structure is the database file. The database file stores
a complete set of simulation data, including object data, simulation controls,
material data, and inter-object relations, both from the original input, and from
selected solution steps. The sequence of information storage in a database file is

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shown in Figure 4. The pre-processor uses an ASCII format file called the
keyword file to create inputs.

Figure 4: DEFORM database structure.

Each DEFORM problem has an associated problem ID and should be created in
its own folder or directory. For every problem, the DEFORM system creates four
types of files that are generally accessible to users:

Database (DB) files
The database file contains the complete simulation data set for input data and
each saved simulation step. The information is stored in a compressed, machine
readable format, and is accessible only through the DEFORM pre- and post-
processors. As the simulation runs, data for each step is written to the end of the
database file. If the step being written is specified as a step to be saved,
information for the next step will be appended after the current data step. If the
step is not specified to be saved, and a solution is found for the next step, the
data for the current step will be overwritten by the data for the next step.

Keyword (KEY) files
Keyword files contain specific problem definition data which is read by the pre-
processor and used to create an input database file. A keyword file may contain
a complete problem definition, or it may contain only specific information about,
for example, a specific object or material. The information is stored in ASCII
format, and can be read and edited with any text editor, such as Notepad, vi, or
emacs. A keyword reference is available which describes the data format for
each keyword.

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1.10. Running the simulation

Simulation engine
The simulation engine is the program which actually performs the numerical
calculations to solve the problem. The simulation engine reads input data from
the database, then writes the solution data back out to the database. As it runs, it
creates two user readable files which track its progress.

Log (LOG) files
Log files are created when a simulation is running. They contain general
information on starting and ending times, remeshings (if any), and may contain
error messages if the simulation stops unexpectedly.

Message (MSG) files
Message files are also created when a simulation is running. They contain
detailed information about the behavior of the simulation, and may contain
information regarding why a simulation has stopped.

1.11. Post-processor

The postprocessor is used to view simulation data after the simulation has been
run. The postprocessor features a graphical user interface to view geometry, field
data such as strain, temperature, and stress, and other simulation data such as
die loads. The postprocessor can also be used to extract graphic or numerical
data for use in other applications.

1.12. Units
DEFORM data may be supplied in any unit system, as long as all variables are
consistent (i.e., length, force, time, and temperature measurements are in the
same units, and all derived units - such as velocity - are derived from the same
base units). This task can be simplified by using either the British or SI system for
the default unit system.

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Figure 5: DEFORM unit system.

Note: It is important to select the unit system at the beginning of the simulation.
Once numerical values have been entered in the pre-processor, the numerical
values will remain unchanged even if the unit system designation is changed.
In Version 3.1, the Post-Processor has been equipped with a feature for unit
conversion for database viewing. The user has four options for unit conversion. If
the conversion factor selected is Default, then the units are picked up
automatically depending on whether the database is English or SI. Since there is
no conversion necessary, all the conversion factors are set to 1.0 in this column.
For the cases of converting English to SI or converting SI to English, the
conversion factors and units are picked up from the dialog and the values are
converted and displayed in the post-processor. The fourth option gives the user
the option of viewing the data from the database in units that are not English or
SI. The user is free to enter the conversion factors and the units corresponding to
the conversion factors. There is no user type unit conversion for
temperature, since the temperature conversion is not a simple
multiplication.

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Chapter 2. Pre-Processor

Figure 6: The preprocessor of DEFORM-3D. The simulation controls button is highlighted
with a red square.

2.1. Simulation Controls
The Simulation Controls window can be found by clicking a button in the
Preprocessor (See Figure 6). Options defined under Simulation Controls (See
Figure 7) control the numerical behavior of the solution. Main controls details with
specifying the simulation title, unit system, geometry type, etc. Stopping and step
controls are used to specify the time step, the total number of steps and the
criteria used to terminate the simulation. Processing conditions like the
environment temperature, convection coefficient can be specified under
Processing conditions. Certain advanced features are explained in the Advanced
controls section.

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Figure 7: Simulation Controls window.

2.1.1. Main controls

Simulation title (TITLE)
The simulation title allows you to title the problem (up to 80 characters) for
reference purposes.
Operation name (SIMNAM)
The simulation name allows you to title the specific operation (up to 80
characters) for reference purposes.
Units (UNIT)
The DEFORM unit system can be defined as English or Metric (SI). All
information in DEFORM should be expressed in consistent units. The unit system
should be selected at the beginning of the problem setup procedure, and should
not be changed during a simulation or after an operation.

Figure 8: DEFORM unit system.

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Type

The five different types of simulations that can be run are:

 Lagrangian Incremental: To be used for all the conventional forming, heat
transfer and heat-treat applications. Transient phase of the processes like
rolling, machining, extrusion, drawing cogging etc. also can be modeled in
this general framework.
 ALE Rolling: ALE model for rolling process can be generated using the
‘Shape Rolling template’. When the model is generated using this
template, automatically generates the necessary boundary conditions for
the entry surface for the billet (indicated in the interface as the Beginning
surface, nodes are assigned BCCDEF=4), and the exit surface ( indicated
in the interface as Free surface, nodes are assigned BCCDEF=5).
Template automatically sets the analysis type as ‘ALE Rolling’. When the
rolling model is setup using the regular pre-processor, user needs to set
this analysis type and proper boundary conditions to be able to run the
ALE model for rolling.
 Steady-State machining. 3D machining model for turning applications can
be generated using the ‘Machining Template’ in which the initial model can
be set up for Lagrangian Incremental run. When sufficient chip has formed
the template can be used to generate an additional operation to switch the
analysis mode to Steady State. In this stage template can be used to
generate the required boundary conditions for the steady state run, which
includes defining end surface of the chip (indicated as free surface, with
BCCDEF code set as 5 for those nodes). Template automatically sets the
analysis type as ‘Steady-State Machining’. When the machining model is
setup using the regular pre-processor, user needs to set this analysis type
and proper free surface and thermal boundary conditions to be able to run
the Steady State model for machining.
 Ring Rolling: Provided for future implementation: This capability is
currently under development.
 Steady-State extrusion: Provided for future implementation: (Current
Eulerian process modeling capability for extrusion, which is under
development can be activated using a special data file called ‘ALE.DAT’.
Please contact SFTC for additional information.)

Simulation modes (SMODE,TRANS)
DEFORM features a group of simulation modes that may be turned on or off
individually, or used in various combinations.

Heat transfer
simulates thermal effects within the simulation, including heat transfer
between objects and the environment, and heat generation due to
deformation or phase transformation, where applicable.

21

Deformation
simulates deformation due to mechanical, thermal, or phase transformation
effects.

Transformation
simulates transformation between phases due to thermomechanical and time
effects.

Diffusion
simulates diffusion of carbon atoms within the material, due to carbon content
gradients.

Grain
simulates grain size calculation and recrystallization calculations.

Heating
simulates heat generation due to resistance or induction heating. This feature
is not activated in the current release.

For backward compatibility with old keywords and databases, before version 3.0,
the keyword SMODE (old style isothermal, non-isothermal, heat transfer) is read
and the corresponding keyword TRANS mode switches are set in the pre-
processor.

Operation number (CURSIM)
Allows the specification of a new operation number for each simulation in the
database. If operations numbers are specified, the post-processor displays each
operation with its number in the step list.

Mesh number (MESHNO)
This variable records the current mesh based on the number of remeshings that
occur between the initial mesh and the current mesh. This variable should not be
changed.

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Figure 9: Step Controls.

2.1.2. Step Controls

The DEFORM system solves time dependent non-linear problems by generating
a series of FEM solutions at discrete time increments. At each time increment,
the velocities, temperatures, and other key variables of each node in the finite
element mesh are determined based on boundary conditions, thermomechanical
properties of the work piece materials and possibly solutions at previous steps.
Other state variables are derived from these key values, and updated for each
time increment. The length of this time step, and number of steps simulated, are
determined based on the information specified in the step controls menu (See
Figure 9).

Starting step number (NSTART)

If a new database is written, the specified step number will be the first step in the
database. If data is written to an existing database, the preprocessor data will be
appended to this database in proper numerical order, and any steps after the one
specified will be overwritten.
The negative (-n) flag on the step number indicates that the step was written to
the database by the pre-processor (either by manual generation of a database
step or by an automatic remesh), not by the simulation engine.
Note: All pre-processor generated steps should have a negative step number

Number of simulation steps (NSTEP)

The number of simulation steps parameter defines the number of steps to run

23

from the starting step number. The simulation will stop after this number of
simulation steps will have run, if another stopping control is triggered to stop the
simulation or if the simulation runs into a problem. For example, if the starting
step number is -35 (NSTART), and 30 steps (NSTEP) are specified, the
simulation will stop after the 65th step, unless another stopping control is
triggered first.

Step increment to save (STPINC)

The step increment to save in the database controls the number of steps that the
system will save in the database. When a simulation runs, every step must be
computed, but does not necessarily need to be saved in the database. Storing
more steps will preserve more information about the process; consequently it will
require more storage space.

Primary die (PDIE)

The primary die is the object for which many stopping and stepping criteria are
defined. For example, stopping distance based on primary die stroke. When the
stroke of the object defined as the primary die reaches the value for primary die
displacement, the simulation will be stopped whether or not more steps were
specified. The Step by Stroke feature determines step size based on the
movement of the primary die.
The primary die is usually assigned to the object most closely controlled by the
forging machinery. For example, the die attached to the ram of a mechanical
press would be designated as the primary object.

Step increment control (DSMAX/DTMAX)

Solution step size can be controlled by time step or by displacement of the
primary die. If stroke per step is specified, the primary die will move the specified
amount in each time step. The total movement of the primary die will be the
displacement per step multiplied by the total number of steps. If time per step is
specified, the time interval per step will be used. The die displacement per step
will be the time step times the die velocity.
Stroke per step is frequently more intuitive. However, time per step must be
specified for any problem in which there is no die movement (such as heat
transfer), or for any problem where force control is used.

Selecting time step and number of steps

Proper time step selection is important. Too large a time step can cause
inaccuracy in the solution, rapid mesh distortion or convergence problems. Too
small a time step can lead to unnecessarily long solution times. The following
section provides some guidelines for selecting time steps.
The maximum displacement for any node should not exceed about 1/3 the length

24

of its element edge length in one step. For flow around a tight corner, flash
forming, or similar highly localized deformations, time steps may need to be
defined to give a node movement of as small as 1/10 or the element edge length.
Thus, for a finer mesh, smaller steps are required than for a coarser mesh. This
prevents the mesh from becoming overly distorted in a single time step.
The time step can be determined by the following method:
1. Using the measurement tool, measure one of the smaller elements in the
deforming object (this must be done after a mesh has been generated)
2. Estimate the maximum velocity of any region of the work piece (for most
problems, this will be the die velocity. For extrusion problems it will be the
die velocity times the extrusion ratio) If some steps have already be run,
display object velocity under Object->Nodes (use the ``eye'' icon to display
a velocity vector plot and maximum and minimum values).
3. Divide the result of 1 by the result of 2, and take about 1/3 of this value as
the time step. This is a rough estimate, so extreme accuracy is not critical.
4. The number of steps is given by where n is the number of steps, x is the
total movement of the primary die, V is the primary die velocity, and is the
time increment per step.
Refer also to the Polygon Length Sub-Step feature under Advanced Step
Controls
If there is insufficient information available to calculate the total number of steps,
three alternatives are available:
1. A general guideline of 1% to 3% height reduction per step can be used.
2. Specify an arbitrarily large number of steps, and use an alternative
stopping control, such as time or total die stroke.
3. Make a good estimate of the number of steps required for the given step
size, and then specify about 120% of this value. Allow the simulation to
overshoot the target, and then use a step near, but not at the end as a
final solution.

2.1.3. Advanced Step Controls

This menu gives more options for special simulations where precision control of
time step size is required (See Figure 10 and Figure 11).

25

Figure 10: Advanced stepping menu 1.

Step definition (STPDEF)
There are three modes for defining steps
 User In user defined steps mode, the steps correspond to the NSTEP
value. This is the default which does not have to be changed in almost all
cases.
 System In the system defined steps mode each sub step is saved to the
database and is treated as a step. This option is primarily used for
debugging purposes.
 Temperature In temperature based sub stepping, the DTPMAX settings
control the time stepping. The purpose for these controls is to specify the
time stepping of a simulation that is driven by thermal-induced
deformation.

Strain per step (DEMAX)
The maximum element strain increment limits the amount of strain that can
accumulate in any individual element during one time step. If a non-zero value is
assigned to DEMAX, a new sub step will be initiated when the strain increment in
any element reaches the value of DEMAX.

Contact Time (DTSUB)
Contact time controls whether or not sub stepping is performed when nodes
contact a master surface. By default (DTSUB = 0), if a node contacts a master
surface a fraction of the way through a time step, the time step is subdivided, and

26

that step is run again at the fraction of the time increment. This will place the
node on the surface at the end of the time step. For 3D problems with a large
number of nodes contacting master surfaces, this can cause huge increases in
execution time.
If DTSUB is set to 1, contact time sub stepping is disabled. Nodes will be allowed
to penetrate the master surface, but then will be artificially moved back to surface
at the end of the time step. This will allow significantly faster execution time.
However, if the defined time step is too large, some volume loss and mesh
distortion may occur.
In general, it is recommended that DTSUB be set to 1, and that the time step
guidelines described above be followed carefully. Use of polygon length sub
stepping, DPLEN, will also control volume loss and mesh distortion, without
severe execution time increases.

Polygon length substep (DPLEN)
Polygon length sub stepping places an upper limit on the absolute distance a
surface node can move in a given time step. The largest distance a given node
can move is defined by

tmax 
( L)(dplen)
u
where
L = the distance from a given node to the nearest adjacent surface on the
same object
dplen = the coefficient controlling the relative maximum time step allowed
u = the magnitude of the velocity of the node
tmax = the maximum time step size allowed

Legal values of DPLEN are from 0 to 1. A value of 0 will disable sub stepping.
Recommended values are 0.2 to 0.5, with 0.2 being more conservative, and
hence slower, and 0.49 being more aggressive, and faster, but less accurate.
Values larger than 0.5 can be used, but may allow unacceptable mesh
degeneration. If the time step size is reduced sufficiently small due to this
criterion, the simulation will be stopped and a remeshing will be performed.

27

Figure 11: Advanced stepping menu 2.

Temperature change per step (DTPMAX)
The maximum temperature change increment limits the amount that the
temperature of any node can change during one time step. If a non-zero value is
assigned, a new sub step will be initiated when the temperature change at any
node reaches the value of DTPMAX. The maximum/minimum time step are the
largest and smallest time step allowable with the temperature based sub-
stepping.

Maximum Sliding Error
This stepping control is not generally recommended. Please contact SFTC for
more information.

28

Figure 12: Process parameters for stopping a simulation.

2.1.4. Stopping Controls

The stopping parameters determine the process time at which the simulation
terminates. A simulation can be terminated based on the maximum number of
time steps simulated, the maximum accumulated elemental strain, the maximum
process time, or maximum stroke, minimum velocity, or maximum load of the
primary object. A simulation will be stopped when the condition of any of the
stopping parameters are met. If a zero value is assigned to any of the termination
parameters other than number of steps (NSTEP), the parameter will not be used.
If no other stopping parameters are specified, the simulation will run until it has
utilized all of the specified steps.

Process Duration (TMAX)
Terminates a simulation when the global process time reaches the value
specified.

Primary Die Displacement (SMAX)
Terminates a simulation when the total displacement of the primary die reaches
the specified value. The stroke value for the object is specified in the Object,
Movement menu.

Minimum velocity of Primary Die (VMIN)
Terminates a simulation when the X or Y component of the primary die velocity
reaches the X or Y values of the VMIN. This parameter is typically used when the
primary object movement is under load control, or when the SPDLMT parameter
is enforced for a hydraulic press.

29

Maximum load of Primary Die (LMAX)
Terminates a simulation when the X or Y load component of the primary die
reaches the X or Y value of LMAX. Typically used when the movement control of
the primary object is velocity or user specified.

Maximum strain in any Element (EMAX)
Terminates a simulation when the accumulated strain of any element reaches the
specified value

Figure 13: Stopping distance based on die distance.

Stopping distance (MDSOBJ)
Terminates a simulation when the distance between reference points on two
objects reaches the specified distance. Stopping distance must be used in
conjunction with the reference point (REFPOS) definition Die Distance window
(See Figure 13).

2.1.5. Remesh Criteria

Please refer to the section on meshing for a description of this window.

30

Figure 14: Iteration controls for the deformation solver.

2.1.6. Iteration Controls
The iteration controls specify criteria the FEM solver uses to find a solution at
each step of the problem simulation. For most problems, the default values
should be acceptable. It may be necessary to change the values if non-
convergence occurs (See Figure 14).

Deformation solver (SOLMTD)
The sparse solver is a direct solution that makes use of the sparseness of FEM
formulation to improve solution speed. The conjugate-gradient solver tries to
solve the FEM problem by iteratively approximating to the solution. For certain
problems, this solver offers tremendous advantages over the Sparse solver.

The advantages of the iterative solver include:
 Up to 5:1 improvements in overall solving time, particularly in very large
problems
 Ability to handle very large numbers of elements in reasonable time and
with reasonable memory demands. (The largest problem to date is
380,000 elements, using 1GB of RAM).
 Much smaller memory requirements for smaller problems - makes 3D
practical on inexpensive computers or laptops.
Limitations:
 In certain situations, convergence may be slower, or the simulation may
not converge, when the sparse solver will converge. This is particularly a
problem for simulations with large "rigid body motion" such as occurs
when a part is settling into a die, undergoing light deformation, or bending.

31

When the conjugate-gradient solver cannot successfully converge toward the
solution, DEFORM-3D will fall back to the sparse solver.

When to use the iterative solver
The solver is generally very good for problems with a lot of contact with the dies.
If a work piece is not well positioned in the dies, or if it will be sliding a bit before
it starts deforming, you should start the simulation with the sparse solver. Once
there is some substantial deformation in the work piece, stop the simulation, load
the final step into the preprocessor, change to "Conjugate Gradient" and "Direct",
and write the database.
Keep an eye on the message file for the first few steps. The first step may be a
bit slow converging. If the second step is still struggling to converge, or if the
simulation stops, you may need to switch back to the sparse solver for a few
more steps.
In general, simulations in which you might expect convergence problems using
the Sparse solver are not well suited for Conjugate Gradient. Most problems,
particularly thin parts or flash parts, will do well after the first 20-30 steps, if not
sooner.

Figure 15: Plot of relative time versus elements for different solvers for elastic objects.

32

Figure 16: Plot of relative memory versus elements for different solvers for elastic
objects.

Iteration methods (ITRMTH)
An iteration method is the manner in which the simulation solution is updated (or
iterated upon) to try to approach the converged step solution.

 Newton-Raphson The Newton-Raphson method is recommended for
most problems because it generally converges in fewer iterations than the
other available methods. However, solutions are more likely to fail to
converge with this method than with other methods.
 Direct The direct method is more likely to converge than Newton-
Raphson, but will generally require more iterations to do so. In the case of
Porous materials, the direct method is the only method currently available.
.

Solver recommendations for 3D

NR : Newton Raphson iterations
DI : Direct iterations
SP : Sparse Solver
CG : Conjugate Gradient Solver
STD : Elasto-Plastic Standard Formulations
MIX : Elasto-Plastic Mixed Formulations
CC : Conformal Coupling (CC) for Contact constraints
PEN : Penalty based contact constraints

Model Data Recommended Can be used Should not

33

be used
General Forming models with CG, DI NR,SP
Plastic objects
(well constrained models)
General Forming with Elasto- SP, NR,STD DI
Plastic objects
Spring Loaded Dies SP CG

Force Controlled Dies SP CG

Heat Treatment with Tet. Mesh SP, NR, MIX CG,NR
Elasto-Plastic

Heat Treatment with Brick Mesh SP, NR CG,NR
Elasto-Plastic

Multiple Deforming Objects SP,DI,CC CG
Plastic + Plastic (Large
deformation)
Multiple Deforming Objects SP,NR,PEN DI
Plastic + Plastic (Small
deformation)
Multiple Deforming Objects SP, NR, PEN DI,CC
Elasto-Plastic objects
Die Stress models SP, NR CG
Elastic + Elastic Objects
Rotational Symmetry models SP,NR,PEN CG,CC
(Elasto-Plastic objects)
Rotational Symmetry models SP,DI,CC CG,NR
(plastic objects)
Pure Heat Transfer models CG NR

Convergence error limits (CVGERR)
A deformation iteration is assumed to have converged when the velocity and
force error limits have been satisfied. This means that the change in both the
nodal velocity norm and the nodal force norm is below the value specified here.
The error norm values for each iteration step are displayed in the message file.
If the message file shows that the force or velocity error norms are getting small,
but not dropping below the error limits, the simulation may be continued by
increasing the appropriate error limit to the smallest value in the message file.

34

This will decrease the solution accuracy, so the simulation should be allowed to
run a few steps, then the values should be reduced again. When doing this,
extreme care should be exercised.
For die stress or press load calculations where extremely accurate force or load
values are required, the load accuracy may be improved by decreasing the force
error limit. This will increase simulation time, but give more accurate results.
Note: It should be noted that the accuracy of the flow stress data will have great
impact on the accuracy of die stress and press load predictions.

Bandwidth optimization (DEFBWD,TMPBWD)
Bandwidth optimization improves solution time by optimizing the structure of the
matrix equation being solved. It should be used for almost all problems.

Figure 17: Temperature iteration settings.

Temperature solver (SOLMTT)
The sparse solver is a direct solution that makes use of the sparseness of FEM
formulation to solve for the temperature. Currently, this is the only solver
available for solving thermal problems.

Initial guess (INIGES)
Initial guess generation improves the convergence behavior of the first step of
the solution. It should be used for almost all problems.

Bandwidth optimization (DEFBWD,TMPBWD)
Bandwidth optimization improves solution time by optimizing the structure of the
matrix equation being solved. It should be used for almost all problems.

35

2.1.7. Processing Conditions
The processing conditions menu contains information about the process
environment, and constants related to general solution behavior.

Figure 18: Heat transfer processing conditions.

Environment temperature (ENVTMP)
Environment temperature is used in radiation and convection heat transfer
calculations and represents the temperature of the area in which the modeled
process is taking place. The environment temperature may be specified as a
constant or as a function of time. Heat transfer to this temperature is considered
to occur from any nodes not in contact with another object. (unless heat
exchange windows are used ). No radiation view factors are accounted for unless
this option is activated. Adding the file DEF_VIEW.DAT to the directory where
the simulation is run will activate this. The contents of the file are unimportant.

Convection coefficient (CNVCOF)
The convection coefficient is required for convection heat transfer calculations.
The convection coefficient may be specified as a constant or as a function of
temperature.

36

Figure 19: Diffusion processing conditions.

Environment atom content (ENVATM) [MIC]
The percentage atom content of the dominant atom (usually carbon) for diffusion
calculations.

Reaction rate coefficient (ACVCOF) [DIF]
The surface reaction rate with the atmospheric atom content for diffusion
calculations.

37

Figure 20: Advanced constants.

Interface penalty constant (PENINF)
A large positive number used to penalize the penetration velocity of a node
through a master surface. The default value is adequate for most simulations. It
should be at least two to three orders higher than the volume penalty constant
(PENVOL). For objects of very small size (e.g. fasteners), it is recommended to
reduce this number on order of magnitude or two to improve convergence. This
will only aid convergence if the sparse solver is used.

Mechanical to heat conversion (UNTE2F)
A constant coefficient to relate units of heat energy(eg BTU) to mechanical
energy (eg klb-in). Appropriate constant values are automatically set for English
and SI units.

Time integration factor (TINTGF)
The time integration factor is the forward integration coefficient for temperature
integration over time. Its value should be between 0.0 and 1.0. The value of 0.75
is adequate for most simulations.

Boltzman constant (BLZMAN)
The Boltzman constant is required for radiation heat transfer calculations. Default
values for English and SI are set automatically. In radiation heat calculations the
nodal temperature will be automatically converted to absolute temperature
(Rankine,Kelvin) based on the selected English or SI units.

38

2.1.8. Advanced Controls

Figure 21: Advanced variables.

Current Global Time/Current Local Time (TNOW)
These values specify the global process time and the local process time. The
global time is the time since the beginning of the problem, and should never be
reset. Local time is a parameter that can be reset by the user. The global time
should not be reset during a simulation as the post-processor uses this time for
many post-processing operations. Below the local and global time definitions is a
selector box that determines which time is to be used for time dependent
functions such as movement controls. The default is global time, however, the
time dependent functions can also be made a function of local time.

Primary Work piece
This parameter allows the user to specify the work piece as an object that must
not possess rigid body motion. If the body does not deform, the simulation will
stop. One purpose of this function is to prevent a rolling simulation from
continuing past the rolled length of material.

Use original additive rule for transformation kinetics
We have improved the transformation kinetics rule with version 6.0. With the
new version, multiple transformations can occur at the same time and
temperature for a given material. If the user does not want to use this new rule
and wants to use the previous one, checking this box will allow this.

39

Figure 22: Error tolerances window.

Error Tolerances

Geometry error (GEOERR)
This value is an estimate of the error between discretized objects. The default
value for this is sufficient.

User defined variables (USRDEF)
User defined variables are 80 character string variables which are passed to user
defined subroutines. Refer to the chapter on User Routines for more information
on how to use these variables.

Output Control

Starting from version 6.0, the simulation control options are further enhanced
with two important features.

1. The first among these is to include a wide selection of strain components that
can be stored by the user depending upon the analysis and object type. These
options for a typical elasto-plastic object enable user to store plastic, elastic and
total strains. For non-isothermal models with elasto-plastic objects additionally
thermal volumetric strains can also be stored for each stored step of the
simulation. When transformation is turned on, the strain components that are
produced due to phase transformation can be stored as well. Once set in the
Pre-Processor, (Figure 23) each of these strain components are available in post
processing for point tracking, contour plots and other normal display options

40

(Figure 24).

2. The second option in the output control that is available to the user is intended
to improve the state variable representation in the analysis domain and minimize
the interpolation error involved in the remeshing procedures. Such representation
can also better maintain the local gradients of the state variables compared to
the existing the element based representation. In the current version, the user
can choose to represent damage, strain and stress state as Element+Nodal data.
This means in addition to the currently available element data, the user can store
these variables as nodal variables. In the future versions more state variables will
be made available with nodal representation.

These additional nodal and element variables can be accessed from the
corresponding nodal and element dialogs (Figure 25).

Figure 23: Setting the additional strain components and element+node data.

41

Figure 24: State variable list for additional strain components and element+nodal data.

Figure 25: Enhanced node and element dialogs including additional nodal variables and
strain components.

42

Figure 26: Control files selections.

2.1.9. Control Files

There are many different specialized features within DEFORM-3D that are
controlled through data files. The purpose for this type of implementation is that
these functions are used in only a few rare instances and if they find popular use,
they can be incorporated into DEFORM keywords. When these data files are
used, the functionality is available if the data file is located in the same directory
as the current problem running. Since they are not contained within neither the
database nor the keyword files, the control file has to be moved with the
database or the keyword to run the problem with the same functionality if a
different directory or computer is used to run a simulation. When one of these
control files are used, a warning is automatically posted in the message file
heading letting the user know that one of these files exists.

43

Figure 27: Control files dialog (Category 2).

In version 5.0, these data files can be specified through the graphical interface in
the Control File window (See Figure 26). The various categories have different
functionalities as follows:

 Category 1
o Double corner constraints – This defines two angles where if a
node is contacting a die corner an angle between these values, the
node will be given a double contact condition. This is further
explained in the appendix.
o Solver switch control – This defines a number of elements where
the switch to sparse solver is blocked. The purpose of this is to
prevent the sparse solver from being activated in cases where the
problem is too large.

 Category 2
o Additional remeshing criteria – The activation of this feature allows
the user to have a finer control on the remeshing criteria.
o Body weight – This will allow the user to specify the amount of body
force per volume of the material. It is not recommended to be used
in cases where the body force may be neglected such as times
where the material is far from the melting temperature.

44

2.2 Material Data

Figure 28: The material data button highlighted with a red box in the preprocessor.

The material properties window can be accessed by pressing the material
properties in the material properties window (See Figure 28). In order for a
simulation to achieve a high level of accuracy it is important to have an
understanding of the material properties required to specify a material in
DEFORM. The material properties that the user is required to specify is a
function of the material types that the user is utilizing in the simulation. This
section describes the material data that may be specified for a DEFORM
simulation. The different data sets are:
 Elastic data
 Thermal data
 Plastic data
 Diffusion data
 Grain growth/recrystallization data
 Hardness estimation data
 Fracture data
This section discusses the manner in which to define each of these sets of data
and which type of simulation each of these are required for.

45

Figure 29: Defining phases and mixtures within DEFORM-3D.

2.2.1. Phases and mixtures

Material groups can be classified into two categories, phase materials and
mixture materials (See Figure 29). For example a generic steel can exist as
Austenite, Bainite, Martensite, etc. During heat-treatment each of the above
phases can transform to another phase. So any material group that can
transform to another phase should be categorized as a phase material. The
mixture material is the set of all phases for an alloy system and an object can be
assigned this mixture material if volume fraction data is calculated.

46

Figure 30: Defining elastic material data.

2.2.2. Elastic data
Elastic data is required for the deformation analysis of elastic and elasto-plastic
materials. The three variables used to describe the properties for elastic
deformation are Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio and thermal expansion.

Young's modulus (YOUNG)
Young's Modulus is used for elastic materials and elastic-plastic materials below
the yield point. It can be defined as a constant or as a function of temperature,
density (for powder metals), dominant atom content (for example, carbon
content), or a function of temperature and atom content.

Poisson's ratio (POISON)
Poisson's Ratio is the ratio between axial and transverse strains. It is required for
elastic and elasto-plastic materials. It can be defined as a constant or as a
function of temperature, density (for powder metals), dominant atom content (for
example, carbon content), or a function of temperature and atom content.

Thermal expansion (EXPAND)
The coefficient of thermal expansion defines volumetric strain due to changes in
temperature. It can be defined as a constant or as a function of temperature.
For elastic bodies temperature change is defined as the difference between

47

nodal temperatures and the specified reference temperature (REFTMP) :

th = (T - T0)

where  is the coefficient of thermal expansion, T0 is the reference temperature
and T is the material temperature.
For elasto-plastic bodies the thermal expansion input in the pre-processor is the
average value of thermal expansion and the FEM calculates the instantaneous
(tangential) value from the average value.

th = *T +  thprev

where * is the tangential coefficient of thermal expansion, and T is the material
temperature.

Note: To activate the reference temperature option, the thermal expansion
coefficient must be made a function of temperature.

48

Figure 31: Defining thermal material data.

Experimental data for thermal expansion and conversion tools available

The user interface now allows either direct entry of the tangent thermal
expansion coefficient as a function of temperature. The user can also import
instantaneous values if available from the experimental data. When importing
the instantaneous values, the user needs to indicate if the recordings are based
on heating or cooling tests and the reference temperature. This instantaneous
thermal expansion data can be converted to average data (also called secant,
which is the data requirement from the model perspective). At any point the user
can see either native data as imported or converted data or both. This data can
also be imported and exported as text files. This table data can also be cut and
pasted from and to Excel (on PC systems) data table. (See Figure 32)

49

Figure 32: Data conversion facilities for thermal expansion function data.

2.2.3. Thermal data
Thermal data is required for any object in the heat transfer mode.

Thermal conductivity (THRCND)
Conduction is the process by which heat flows from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature within a medium. The thermal
conductivity in this case is the ability of the material in question to conduct heat
within an object. The value can be a constant or a function of temperature, a
function of atom content, or a function of temperature and atom content.

Heat capacity (HEATCP)
The heat capacity for a given material is the measure of the change in internal
energy per degree of temperature change per unit volume. This value is specific
heat per unit mass density. The value can be a constant or a function of
temperature, a function of atom content, or a function of temperature and atom
content.

Emissivity (EMSVTY)
The emissive power, E, of a body is the total amount of radiation emitted by a
body per unit area and time. The emissivity, , of a body is the ratio of E/Eb
where Eb is the emissive power of a perfect blackbody. For a more complete
description of the properties of emissivity, consult any source dealing with heat

50

transfer. The value can be a constant or a function of temperature.

Figure 33: Defining plastic material data.

2.2.4. Plastic Data
For studying the plastic deformation behavior of a given metal it is appropriate to
consider uniform or homogeneous deformation conditions. The yield stress of a
metal under uniaxial conditions as a function of strain ( ), strain rate ( ), and
temperature (T) can also be considered as flow stress. The metal starts flowing
or deforming plastically when the applied stress reaches the value of yield stress
or flow stress.
The DEFORM material database has been implemented with around 145
material flow stress data sets. Additional materials will be included as they are
available. The material database contains only flow stress data (data for a
material in the plastic region). Thermal and elastic properties are not included in
the material database.
Note: Flow stress data is compiled from a variety of sources and it is only
provided as a reference data set. Material testing should be performed to obtain
flow stress data for critical applications.

51

Material model data conversion utilities

When the material flow stress data is available in the form of data table (Figure
34), user can convert this data in to a close form model equation using the
‘Conversion’ utilities. User can select material model from the available list, and
fit the model parameters to match the table data points using the curve fitting
techniques (Figure 35). Once this is done, the system displays both forms of the
data for the users to proceed with. Typically solid lines in the graph indicate the
original data, and the dashed lines from the flow curve computed based on the
fitted model parameters.

Figure 34: Material flow stress data in table form in temperature, strain rate and strain
dimensions.

52

Figure 35: Results from material model data conversion.

The user should make note that, like any other curve fitting techniques, the
nature of original data and initial guess (if user can make one) on the model
parameters will greatly influence the quality of the conversion results. This tool
also provides options to selectively carryout the curve fitting needs with control
over the individual model parameters. Once user accepts the conversion, the
converted model data replaces the original table data.

Flow Stress (FSTRES)
DEFORM provides different methods of defining the flow stress. These forms are
shown below:

Power law

where
= Flow stress
= Effective plastic strain

53

= Effective strain rate
c = Material constant
n = Strain exponent
m = Strain rate exponent
y = Initial yield value

Tabular data format

where
= Flow stress
T = Temperature
This method is most highly recommended due to its ability to follow the true
behavior of a material. The user is required to enter the values of effective strain,
effective strain rate and temperature for which the user has flow stress values.
Interpolation methods:
Linear interpolation
This method takes a linear weighted average between tabular flow stress
data points.
Linear interpolation in log-log space
This method takes a linear weighted average between tabular flow stress
values in log-log space. If the user inputs a value at zero strain, a linear
average between the flow stress value at the zero strain value and the flow
stress value at the next highest strain value is linearly interpolated. Using this
method the initial yield stress can be defined at a plastic strain of zero. The
flow stress values are always interpolated linearly with respect to
temperature.
Warning : If simulation conditions of the material exceeds the bounds of the
strain, strain rate or temperature defined in the tabular data, the program will
extrapolate based on the last two data points which may lead to loss of accuracy.

Flow stress for aluminum alloys (Type 1)

where
A = Constant
= Constant

54

n = Strain rate exponent
= Activity energy
R = Gas constant
Tabs = Absolute temperature = Flow stress

Flow stress for aluminum alloys (Type 2)

where
A = Constant
n = Strain rate exponent

= Activity energy
R = Gas constant
Tabs = Absolute temperature = Flow stress

Linear hardening

where
A = Atom content
T = Temperature
= Flow stress
Y = Initial yield stress
H = Strain hardening constant

User defined flow stress routine
Please refer to Chapter 13 for a description of how to implement user defined
flow stress routines.

Flow stress database
The DEFORM material database contains flow stress data for around 145
different materials. The flow stress data provided by the material database has a
limited range in terms of temperature range and effective strain.

55

Warning: If a simulation condition of the material exceeds the bounds of the
strain, strain rate or temperature defined in the tabular data, the program will
extrapolate based on the last two data points which may lead to loss of accuracy.

Yield function type
This functionality supports anisotropy. There are three different types of yield
functions available.

Von Mises
This is the default setting. This specifies an isotropic material model.

Hill’s quadratic (FGHLMN)
This allows the user to specify anisotropic settings using the FGHLMN
format of the Hill’s quadratic method.

Figure 36: Hill's quadratic (FGHLMN) input screen.

Hill’s quadratic (R value)
This allows the user to specify anisotropic settings using the R-value
format of the Hill’s quadratic method.

56

Figure 37: Hill's quadratic (R value) input screen.

Hardening rule (HDNRUL) [MIC]
Currently, two models for hardening are supported, kinematic and isotropic. For
an isotropic model, as a material yields and plastically deforms, the yield surface
expands uniformly or isotropically. Thus, the yield strain in all directions is the
same. However, for a kinematic model, the yield surface shifts as the material
yields. The kinematic hardening model is required if the Bauschinger effect is to
be modeled. This is valid only for the elasto-plastic objects under small
deformation.

Creep (CREEP) [MIC]
Creep is defined as the time-dependent permanent deformation under stress that
usually occurs at high temperatures. It is common in applications where the
material undergoes cyclic loading or where stress relief is of interest. DEFORM
only supports creep calculations for elasto-plastic objects.
The methods for defining creep in DEFORM are given below:

Perzyna's model

where
 = fluidity
= effective stress
S = Flow stress
m = Material parameter
This model is known as Perzyna's model. It is a formulation for elastic-
viscoplastic flow. In this method creep will not occur until the effective stress

57

exceeds the yield strength of the material. If the effective stress is less than the
flow stress, the resulting strain rate is zero.

Power law

where
 = fluidity
= effective stress
S = Flow stress
m = Material parameter
This model is known as the power law. It is a very classical method for describing
steady state or secondary creep.

Baily-Norton's model

where
= Effective stress
Tabs = Absolute temperature
K,n,m,Q,r = Constants
 = fluidity
S = Flow stress
This model is known as Baily-Norton's model. The user should make sure that K
and Q are in the proper units so that the strain rate is defined as second-1. The
nodal temperature will be converted to absolute temperature inside the FEM
engine.

Soderburg's model

where
= Effective stress
Tabs = Absolute temperature
K,n,C = Constants

58


Tabular data
This method is not currently available for this release.

User Routines
This method is not currently available for this release.

Figure 38: Diffusion data window.

2.2.5. Diffusion data
DEFORM allows the user to model the diffusion of the dominant atom (at this
point carbon) in an object. The window for this is seen in Figure 38. The user
only needs to specify the diffusion coefficient for the diffusion. For the simulation
of carburizing process, normally performed before quenching, the Laplace
equation is used for the diffusion model:

59

where C is the carbon content, and D is the diffusion coefficient.
Note: Brick elements tend to produce nicer looking results than the tetrahedral
elements since the mean diffusion distance is normally much smaller than the
average element edge length. This will tend to make the tetrahedral results look
somewhat patchy due to their generally uneven edge length.

Diffusion coefficient (DIFCOE)
The diffusion coefficient can be defined by the following methods:

Method 1
Constant value for diffusion coefficient.

Method 2
Diffusion coefficient is a function of atom content and temperature (Matrix
format).

D=f(A,t) (5.13)

where A is the atom content, D is the diffusion coefficient and t is time.

Method 3
Diffusion coefficient is a function of temperature and atom content (Tabular
format).

D=C1(T)exp(C2(T)A) (5.14)

where
D = Diffusion coefficient
A = Atom content
C1 = Coefficient 1 which is a function of temperature
C2 = Coefficient 2 which is a function of temperature
T = Absolute temperature

Method 4
Diffusion coefficient is a function of temperature and atom content (Tabular
format).

D=C1(A)exp(C2(A)/T) (5.15)

60

where
D = Diffusion coefficient
A = Atom content
C1 = Coefficient 1 which is a function of atom content
C2 = Coefficient 2 which is a function of atom content
T = Absolute temperature

Hardening rule

This allows the user to specify whether an isotropic or kinematic hardening model
is used.

Figure 39: Hardness modeling data specification.

2.2.6. Hardness data [MIC]
There are two methods in which the hardness of a object may be determined
after a cooling operation. The screen where this data is set is seen in Figure 39.
The first method is by specifying the hardness of each phase (HDNPHA) in a
mixture and DEFORM will use the mixture law to determine the hardness of each
element. The second method is to use experimental results from the Jominy

61

curve and cooling time vs distance to determine the hardness during cooling.
The method of calculating the hardness can be specified for each object in
the Object, Properties menu.

Hardness of each phase (HDNPHA)
The hardness of each phase (material group) can be specified. The hardness of
each phase may be a constant or may vary with respect to atom content. The
hardness of the object will be calculated based on the volume fraction of each
phase in the element and on the hardness of each phase.

Jominy curve (JOMINY)
The hardness vs. distance for the Jominy test specimen must be specified here.
This data is to be defined only for the mixture material (MSTMTR).

Cooling time (HDNTIM)
The cooling time vs. distance for the Jominy test specimen must be specified
here. Using the JOMINY data and the HDNTIM data, DEFORM will calculate the
hardness of the object during cooling.

Figure 40: Recrystallization model setting window.

2.2.7. Grain growth/recrystallization model

62

Numerous phenomenological models have been published in the area of grain
modeling, and controversies exist on the definitions of various recrystallization
mechanisms. To accommodate these models, DEFORM has chosen the most
popular definitions and generalized equation forms. In each time step, based on
the time, local temperature, strain, strain rate, and evolution history, the
mechanism of evolution is determined, and then the corresponding grain
variables are computed and updated.

Definitions
Dynamic recrystallization: occurring during deformation and when the strain
exceeds critical strain. The driving force is removal of dislocations.
Static recrystallization: occurring after deformation and when strain is less than
critical strain. The driving force is removal of dislocations. The recrystallization
begins in a nuclei-free environment.
Meta-dynamic recrystallization: occurring after deformation and when strain is
greater than critical strain. The driving force is removal of dislocations. Because
the strain has exceeded critical strain, recrystallization nuclei have formed in the
material, so the recrystallization behaviors are different from without nuclei (static
recrystallization).
Grain Growth: occurring before recrystallization begins or after recrystallization is
completed. The driving force is the reduction of grain boundary energy.

Numerous phenomenological models have been published in the area of grain
modeling, and controversies exist on the definitions of various recrystallization
mechanisms. To accommodate these models, DEFORM has chosen the most
popular definitions and generalized equation forms. In each time step, based on
the time, local temperature, strain, strain rate, and evolution history, the
mechanism of evolution is determined, and then the corresponding grain
variables are computed and updated.

Definitions
Dynamic recrystallization: occurring during deformation and when the strain
exceeds critical strain. The driving force is removal of dislocations.
Static recrystallization: occurring after deformation and when strain is less than
critical strain. The driving force is removal of dislocations. The recrystallization
begins in a nuclei-free environment.
Meta-dynamic recrystallization: occurring after deformation and when strain is
greater than critical strain. The driving force is removal of dislocations. Because
the strain has exceeded critical strain, recrystallization nuclei have formed in the
material, so the recrystallization behaviors are different from without nuclei (static
recrystallization).

63

Grain Growth: occurring before recrystallization begins or after recrystallization is
completed. The driving force is the reduction of grain boundary energy.

Dynamic Recrystallization
The dynamic recrystallization is a function of strain, strain rate, temperature, and
initial grain size, which change in time. It is very difficult to model dynamic
recrystallization concurrently during forming. Instead, the dynamic
recrystallization is computed in the step immediately after the deformation stops.
Average temperatures, strain rate of the deformation period are used as inputs of
the equations.
1. Activation Criteria
The onset of DRX usually occurs at a critical stain  c.

where  p denotes the stain corresponding to the flow stress maximum:

2. Kinetics
The Avrami equation is used to describe the relation between the
dynamically recrystallized fraction X and the effective strain.

where  0.5 denotes the strain for 50% recrystallization:

3. Grain Size
The recrystallized grain size is expressed as a function of initial grain size, strain,
strain rate, and temperature

(if then drex=d0)

Static Recrystallization
When deformation stops, the strain rate and critical strain are used to determine
whether static or meta-dynamic recrystallization should be activated. The static
and metal-dynamic recrystallization is terminated when this element starts to
deform again.
1)_Activation Criteria

When strain rate is less than , static recrystallization occurs after deformation.

64

2. Kinetics
The model for recrystallization kinetics is based on the modified Avrami
equation.

where t0.5 is an empirical time constant for 50% recrystallization:

3. Grain Size

(if then drex=d0)

Meta-dynamic Recrystallization
Meta-dynamic recrystallization is similar to static recrystallization but with
different activation criteria and material constants.
1. Activation Criteria

When strain rate is greater than (see equation (1)), meta-dynamic
recrystallization occurs after deformation.
2. Kinetics
The model for recrystallization kinetics is based on the modified Avrami
equation.

where t0.5 is an empirical time constant for 50% recrystallization:

3. Grain Size

(if then drex=d0)

Grain Growth
Grain growth takes place before recrystallization start or after recrystallization
finishes.

65

The kinetics is described by equation:

where dgg denotes the grain size after growth, a9 and m are materials constant,
and Q8 is an activation energy.

Retained Strain
When recrystallization of a certain type is incomplete, the retained strain
available for following another type of recrystallization can described by a uniform
softening method

Temperature Limit
The temperature limit is the lower bound of all grain evolution mechanisms.
Below this temperature, no grain evolution occurs.

Average Grain Size
The mixture law was employed to calculate the recrystallized grain size for
incomplete recrystallization,

Model Dependency on Temperature and Strain Rate
DEFORM allows different constants and coefficients for the equations at different
temperatures or strain rates. The data are linearly interpolated.

NOMENCLATURE
T_Temperature, K
R_Gas constant
t_Time
d0_Initial grain size
drex_Recrystallized grain size
 _Effective strain
 c_Critical strain
 p_Peak strain
 0.5_Strain for 50% recrystallization

66

_Effective strain rate
t0.5_Time for 50% recrystallization
Z_Zener Holloman parameter
a1 – 10_Material data
b1 – 2_Material data
c1 – 8_Material data
n1 – 8_Material data
m1 – 8_Material data
Q1 – 8_Material data
 d,  md,  s_Material data
kd, kmd, ks_Material data
 _Material data

Figure 41: Grain growth and recrystallization settings window.

67

Figure 42: Advanced material settings.

2.2.8. Advanced material properties

Figure 42 shows the advanced material properties available for special
applications.

Fracture Data (FRCMOD)
FRCMOD specifies the damage model that one wishes to use for damage
calculation. The Normalized Cockcroft & Latham damage model is the only
model currently supported in DEFORM3D

Mechanical Work to Heat (FRAE2H)
Mechanical work to heat specifies the fraction of mechanical work converted to
heat. The conversion fraction would typically be 0.9 to 0.95. The default value is
0.9 and unless the user has a good feel for this value, this value should not be
changed.

2.2.9. Material data requirements

Guidelines

68

1. An isothermal forming problem with rigid dies and a rigid-viscoplastic work
piece
Work piece Dies
Material Data
Flow Stress X
Young's Modulus
Poisons Ratio
Thermal Expansion
Heat Capacity
Conductivity
Emissivity
2. A Non-isothermal forming problem with rigid dies and a rigid-viscoplastic
work piece
Work piece Dies
Material Data
Flow Stress X
Young's Modulus
Poisons Ratio
Thermal Expansion
Heat Capacity X X
Conductivity X X
Emissivity X X
3. Heat transfer analysis
Work piece Dies
Material Data
Flow Stress
Young's Modulus
Poisons Ratio
Thermal Expansion
Heat Capacity X X
Conductivity X X
Emissivity X X
4. Coupled analysis non-isothermal with thermal expansion Elastic dies and
elasto-plastic work piece
Work piece Dies
Material Data
Flow Stress X
Young's Modulus X X
Poisons Ratio X X
Thermal Expansion X X
Heat Capacity X X
Conductivity X X
Emissivity X X
5. Decoupled die stress analysis isothermal

69

Work piece Dies
Material Data
Flow Stress X
Young's Modulus X
Poisons Ratio X
Thermal Expansion
Heat Capacity
Conductivity
Emissivity
6. Decoupled die stress analysis non-isothermal
Work piece Dies
Material Data
Flow Stress X
Young's Modulus X
Poisons Ratio X
Thermal Expansion X
Heat Capacity X X
Conductivity X X
Emissivity X X

70

2.3. Inter Material Data
The purpose of inter-material data is to define the relationships between the
phases of a mixture. As defined in the material data, a mixture is defined by the
user as a set of phases. The relationships between the phases are defined in
terms of the following transformation characteristics:
 Transformation kinetics model
 Latent heat of transformation
 Transformation induced volume change
 Transformation plasticity
The purpose of this section is to give the user an understanding of how to
properly define a transformation relationship between two phases. This section
will explain in how DEFORM handles the above concepts.
Transformation is a crucial concept in metal forming and heat treatment. Figure
43 illustrates the coupling between temperature, deformation, transformation,
and carbon content. Transformation is modeled by defining the volume fraction
for each possible phase in each element of a meshed object. For low carbon
steel object, each element may contain different volume fraction of martensite,
bainite, pearlite, or austenite. Each phase is defined by its own set of material
properties. These material properties define the plastic behavior of the phase, the
thermal properties of the phase, and possibly (if using an elastic-plastic material)
the elastic properties of the phase.
The relationship between the transformations from one phase to another is
defined by the inter-material data. This relationship is defined in terms of a
kinetics model (in order to determine rate of phase transformation) and a few
relational properties such as latent heat and volume change.

2.3.1. Transformation relation (PHASTF)

In DEFORM, the manner in which transformation is defined is in terms of
transformation relationships. The basic unit for transformation relationships is
phases. Phases can be grouped together to define a mixture. A mixture
corresponds to a material such as AISI-1045 or Ti-6Al-4V. The phases
correspond to Austenite, Bainite, Pearlite, Martensite, or alpha and to any other
phase that is defined. For example, in the case of low carbon steel, austenite has
a relationship to pearlite since austenite may form pearlite upon the proper
cooling conditions. Also, upon proper heating conditions, pearlite can convert to
austenite. Thus, in DEFORM, to specify the relationship of austenite converting
to pearlite, one need select the austenite as Material 1 and the pearlite as
Material 2 and then click the Phase 1 Phase 2 relationship. This will then
allow the user to define the kinetics of the transformation, the latent heat of the
transformation, volume change of the transformation, etc.

71

Figure 43: Relationships between various modules within DEFORM.

2.3.2. Kinetics model (TTTD)

72

Figure 44: Transformation kinetics models.

A kinetics model is a function that defines the conditions and manner in which
one phase may transform into another. The amount of data required is often
considerable as in the case for a full TTT diagram, so unless necessary, often
using coefficients for a function can suffice. A model defines one relationship only
so many relationships are required for such cases as steel where many phases
can be produced. There are two classifications for kinetics models, diffusion-type
transformations and diffusionless-type transformations. The system is designed
for both ferrous and nonferrous metals. Using carbon steel as an example, the
austenite-ferrite and austenite-pearlite structure changes and vice versa are
governed by the diffusion type transformation. The transformation is driven by the
diffusion processes depending n the temperature, stress history, and carbon
content. The diffusionless transformation from austenite to martensite involves a
shear process which depends on the temperature, stress, and carbon content.

Diffusion type TTT table form (Temp, Stress, Atom)

73

This type defines a TTT diagram whose independent variables are average
element temperature, effective stress and dominant atom content. In the case of
steel, dominant atom content is the weight percentage of carbon in the metal at
each element. Using tabular data, DEFORM solves for the coefficients of an
Avrami equation, which has the form

1 - exp(-ktn)
where is the volume fraction transformed, t is the time and k and n are
constants (n being the Avrami number). In terms of TTT data, two curves are
required in order to solve for k and n. If only one curve is input to DEFORM, the
user must provide the Avrami exponent n.

Figure 45: TTT curve data.

Figure 45 shows an example TTT diagram in DEFORM. In the case below, two
curves are used to define the volume fraction transformed for a given dominant
atom content. Each curve corresponds to the appropriate specified volume
fraction (Curve1 VF or Curve2 VF).

Martensitic type (Tms, Tm 50 Table form)

The transformation start and 50 % level temperature are entered in table format

74

as a function of carbon content and stress levels.

Diffusion type (function)
Volume fraction is represented by the Avrami equation as follows:

where,fT(T), andfC(C) are the functions of temperature T, is the
mean stress and C is the carbon content. The exponent n depends on the
transformation and fT(T) can be expressed the following simplified formula.

where the coefficients from AT1to AT7 are determined by using 50% transformed

line of TTT diagram. and fC(C) describe the stress and carbon content
dependency of transformation, respectively as follows:

fC(C)=exp(AC1(C-AC2))

The coefficients AS is specified according to the stress dependency of TTT
curves, AC1 and AC2 are determined by carbon content dependency.

Diffusion type (function and table)
This model is not available in the current release of DEFORM.

Martensitic type (function)
The volume fraction of diffusionless-type (martensite) transformation depended
on temperature, stress and carbon content is governed by Magee's equation as
follows:

Here, is the mean stress, is the effective stress. When the martensite
transformation start temperatures under carburized conditions and applied stress

75

are given, , and can be determined, and
and are identified, if temperatures for martensite-start TMSand for 50% martensite

TM50 at and are provided respectively.

Diffusion type (simplified)
SCREEN: Inter Material
A simplified Diffusion function is defined by a function of the following form:

where
T = average element temperature.
TS = starting temperature of the transformation.
TE = ending temperature of the transformation.
This formula is a good first approximation for a diffusion-based transformation.
The coefficients can be obtained using dilatation-temperature diagrams.

Diffusion type (recrystallization)

The volume fraction of recrystallization is usually defined by the equation
including the time for 50% recrystallization as follows:

where, b is material constant and n is the exponent whose value depends upon
the underlying mechanisms, and t0.5 is the time for 50% recrystallization;

where a, m, and n are material constants, Q is activation energy, R gas constant,
T absolute temperature, and is a prior plastic strain obtained after an operation
of forming and d0 is an initial grain diameter specified as object data. This model
is not currently available for the current release of DEFORM.

Melting and solidification type
This model is not available for the current release of DEFORM.

76

User Routine
This model is not available for the current release of DEFORM.

Figure 46: Latent heat and transformation-induced volume change data.

2.3.3. Latent heat (PHASLH)

Latent heat accounts for the net energy gain or loss when a phase change
occurs from one phase to another. Latent heat may be a constant value, a
function of either temperature or a function of the dominant atom content. The
energy release due to the latent heat can prolong the time of transformation. A
positive sign on the latent heat value means that the transformation acts as a
heat source and a negative sign means that the transformation acts as a heat
sink. The units for this variable are Btu/in3 for English units and N/mm2 for SI
units.

77

2.3.4. Transformation induced volume change (PHASVL)

Volume change may be the result of a phase transformation. This volume
change may induce stresses in the transforming object and will certainly affect
the final dimensions after processing. The volume change due to transformation
is induced by a change in the lattice structure of a metal. The transformation
strain is used mainly to account for the structure change during the
transformation and is in the form of:

Where is the fractional length change due to transformation from phase I to

phase J, is transformation volume fraction rate, is the Kronecker delta

and is the transformation strain rate. A positive sign in the volume change
means there is an increase in volume change and a negative sign means there is
a decrease in volume over the transformation. This variable is unit less.

78

Figure 47: Transformation-induced plasticity data.

2.3.5. Transformation plasticity (TRNSFP)
As a material undergoes transformation, it will plastically deform at a stress lower
than the flow stress. This phenomenon is known as Transformation Plasticity.
The change of the dimensions of a part due to transformation plasticity occur in
combination with the dimension changes due to transformation induced volume
change. In DEFORM, the equation for transformation plasticity is as follows:

where

= Transformation plasticity strain tensor.

79

KIJ = Transformation plasticity coefficient from phase I to phase J
= Volume fraction rate

sij = Deviatoric stress tensor.
The only data that the user needs to provide for this relationship is the
transformation plasticity coefficient. The other terms are automatically calculated
by DEFORM. The transformation plasticity coefficient may be a function of
temperature.
A general range for KIJ for steel is given below,
 austenite - ferrite, pearlite or bainite ( 4 - 13 *10-5 /MPa)
 austenite - martensite ( 5 - 21 * 10-5 /MPa)
 ferrite & pearlite - austenite ( 6 - 21 *10-5 /MPa)

Figure 48: Other phase transformation data

80

2.3.6. Other Transformation Data

Thermal direction gives the simulation a bit more information so transformation
does not errantly generate volume fraction. For example, when heating steel
from room temperature to austenizing temperature, any bainite will be converted,
over time, to austenite. During the heating, austenite may be converted back to
bainite since it may be defined as a possibility. This definition prevents this. It is
recommended to use this sparingly.

Equilibrium volume fraction defines the maximum amount of a phase volume
fraction generation during an isothermal condition.

Figure 49: Preprocessor with the object list with a red box.

2.4 Object Definition

81

The objects display list in the preprocessor shows all the currently active objects
(See Figure 49). The “active object” can be controlled by selecting an object in
the objects display list. Once an object is selected, the object properties window
contains all object specific data such as the geometry, mesh, boundary
conditions, movement, initial conditions, and object specific numerical properties
for the object “active object”.

Figure 50: Preprocessor with the object properties window with a red box.

2.4.1. Adding, deleting objects

82

Figure 51: Insert and Delete object buttons in a red rectangle.

To add an object to the list of objects, click on the Insert Object button. This will
insert a new object into the first available object number.
To delete an object, select the appropriate object and press the Delete Object
button (See Figure 51). This will delete all entries associated with the object,
including movement controls, inter-object boundary conditions, friction and heat
transfer data, etc.
Note: To replace an object geometry definition without deleting movement
controls and inter-object relationships, it is possible to overwrite the object
geometry from the geometry window. This is useful for changing die geometries
when performing two or more deformation operations on the same work piece.
When redefining an object in this manner, it is extremely important to initialize
and regenerate inter-object boundary conditions. It may also be necessary to
reset the stroke definition in Movement controls.

83

Figure 52: Object general properties in a red box.

2.4.2. Object name (OBJNAM)

The work piece and each piece of tooling must be identified as a unique object
and assigned an object number and name. The object name is a string of up to
64 characters. It is highly recommended that it be set to something meaningful
(e.g. punch, die, work piece). (See Figure 52).

2.4.3. Primary Die (PDIE)
The primary die specifies the primary object for the simulation. The primary
object is usually assigned to the object most closely controlled by the forming
machinery. For example, the die attached to the ram of a mechanical press
would be designated as the primary die. Characteristics of the primary die can be
used to control various aspects of a simulation including:

1. Simulation time step size (DSMAX)
2. Object movement (MOVCTL)
3. Simulation termination criteria (SMAX, VMIN, LMAX)

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The primary die is defined in using a checkbox (See Figure 52). Only one object
can be defined as the primary die.

2.4.4. Object type (OBJTYP)
The object type defines if and how deformation is modeled for each individual
object in a DEFORM problem.

Rigid
Rigid objects are modeled as non-deformable materials. In the deformation
analysis, the object is represented by the geometric profile (DIEGEO).
Deformation solution data available for rigid objects include object stroke, load,
and velocity. The mesh for the rigid object is used only for thermal,
transformation, and diffusion calculations.

applications:
When used to model tooling, increases simulation speed (over elastic tooling)
by reducing the number of deformable objects, and hence the number of
equations which must be solved. Negligible loss of accuracy for typical
simulations where the tools have a much higher yield stress than the work
piece.

limitations:
Stress and deflection data for the dies is not available during deformation.
This data can be obtained at selected single steps by performing a single
step die stress analysis

Elastic
The elastic material behavior is specified with Young's modulus (YOUNG) and
Poisson's ratio (POISON). Elastic objects are used if the knowledge of the tooling
stress and deflection are important throughout the process. If maximum stress or
deflection information is required for die stress, it is recommended that rigid dies
be used for the deformation simulation, and then a single step die stress
simulation be used. Refer to the die stress tutorials in the online help for more
information. At this time a fully coupled elastic tool, plastic work piece analysis is
not recommended.
applications:
When used to model tooling, the elastic model can provide information on
tool stress and deflection. Useful in rare situations when tooling deflection
can have a significant influence on the shape of the part.
limitations:
If yield stress for the tooling is exceeded, stress and deflection results will be
incorrect. However, in most cases, if tooling yield stress is exceeded, this

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represents an unacceptable situation, and tooling deformation beyond yield is
not useful. It is good practice to check stresses in simulations with elastic
tooling to ensure that this situation is not violated.

Plastic
Plastic objects are modeled as rigid-plastic or rigid-viscoplastic material
depending on characteristics of materials. The formulation assumes that the
material stress increases linearly with strain rate until a threshold strain rate,
referred to as the limiting strain rate (LMTSTR). The material deforms plastically
beyond the limiting strain rate. The plastic material behavior of the object is
specified with a material flow stress function or flow stress data (FSTRES).
applications:
When used to model work piece, provides very good simulation of real
material behavior. Accurately captures strain rate sensitivity.
limitations:
Does not model elastic recovery (spring back), and is therefore inappropriate
for bending or other operations where spring back has a significant effect on
the final part geometry. Does not model strains due to thermal expansion /
contraction. Cannot capture residual stresses.

Elasto-plastic (Ela-Pla)
Elasto-plastic objects are treated as elastic objects until the yield point is
reached. Then, any portions of the object that reach the yield point are treated as
plastic, while the remainder of the object is treated as elastic. In the elasto-plastic
deformation the total strain in the object is a combination of elastic strain and
non-elastic strain. The non-elastic strain consists of plastic strain, creep strain,
thermal strain and transformation strain depending on the characteristics of
materials. Detail of different material models can be found later. In the case of
brick elements, the elasto-plastic model is valid for all levels of strain.
applications:
Provides a realistic simulation of elastic recovery (spring back), and strains
due to the thermal expansion. Useful for problems such as bending where
spring back has a significant effect on the final part geometry. Also useful for
residual stress calculations. Object type must be elastic-plastic for creep
calculations.
limitations:
Does not model strain rate sensitivity, and as such is inappropriate for hot
materials undergoing large deformations. Requires more solution time than
rigid-plastic, and may have difficulties with convergence.
NOTE: If flow stress is defined for multiple strain rates, the flow stress of an
elasto-plastic material is evaluated at the strain rate value specified in limiting
strain rate under object->properties.

Porous

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Porous objects are treated the same as plastic objects (compressible rigid-
viscoplastic materials) except that the material density is calculated and updated
as part of the simulation. The material behavior is modeled similar to plastic
objects but the model includes the compressibility of the material in the
formulation. The limiting strain rate (LMTSTR) and the flow stress (FSTRES)
must be specified at the fully dense state. The material density is specified at
each element (DENSTY). Objects with changing material densities such as
materials used in powder forming, should be modeled as Porous objects. The
only iteration method currently available for the porous material is the direct
solution method. This method does not have fast convergence capabilities,
subsequently a porous simulation may take longer than a comparable plastic
simulation.
applications
Appropriate for compacted, sintered powders, beyond around 70 /Accurately
models consolidation and densification during forging.
limitations
Cannot model loose powder or compaction processes.

2.4.5. Object geometry
In DEFORM the object geometry plays two roles.
 For deformable objects, the imported geometry is used to construct the
finite element mesh. Since the object geometry changes, the original
geometry is not stored.
 For rigid objects, the imported geometry defines the surface of the tool. If
a mesh is generated for heat transfer, the original geometry definition is
still used for the rigid surface definition. The original geometry can be
displayed in the object/geometry window.
 For deformable objects, the imported geometry is used to generate a
mesh. Once a database is generated and the preprocessor is exited, the
object geometry will be defined by the surface of the FEM mesh, and the
original surface is no longer stored.

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Figure 53: Geometry tool window.

Geometry formats

STL format input (DIEGEO)
The STL format represents a surface by a series of three sided facets. This
format may be created from almost all commercial solid modeling packages from
a either a solid model or a surface model. For very simple shapes, such as a
cube, very few facets may be used to provide an excellent representation of the
shape. In the case of an extrusion die where the facets are used to model a
curved surface, many facets may be required in order to give the object a smooth
representation or to render small details in a geometry. An economy of the
number of facets used to represent a geometry is recommended in order to
minimize the size of the database file. As more facets are used, the size of each
step in the database file will increase. The increase in the time for the contact
calculations is negligible with the increase of the number of facets in the die
geometries.
Upon inputing an STL file into the Pre-processor, the user is immediately
prompted for a error tolerance value. This value is the snapping distance
between the points in the STL file. Since the facets are not dependent on each
other, the points in which adjacent facets share may not be represented exactly

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the same way in an STL file. Since they were meant to be the same point, the
Preprocessor assumes some error tolerance where the points are merged into
representing the same point. The default value of 1e-005 is usually a good
starting value. If there are small cracks in the die geometry, they may closed by
increasing the error tolerance value and hoping that the cracks are snapped
closed. This is not a very controlled manner in which to close any cracks and
should be used with extreme caution. After using this method, the geometry
should be carefully checked to ensure that no holes are introduced or important
features are lost.
The file format for STL files may be either ASCII or binary format. DEFORM can
both read and write ASCII and binary versions of the STL file. The facets are all
defined independently of each other, so the danger of there being folds, holes,
overlapping facets, or invalid facet orientations is possible. After reading an STL
file, it is strongly recommended to check the geometry to make sure that there
are no folds, holes or other problems. If there are geometry problems in a
deforming body, problems may occur upon meshing the object. If there are
geometry problems in a rigid die, problems may occur during the simulation
where nodes get trapped and severely compromise the integrity of the deforming
body. This can be very problematic since problems in die geometries may not
occur until well into a simulation. The manner in which to best determine if a die
geometry is well defined or not is to try to apply a mesh to it. If a mesh can be
generated on geometry, then it is a well defined geometry, however, if the
meshing fails, then it is possible that there is a problem with the geometry
definition.

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Figure 54: Examine information for object geometry.

AMGGEO format input
The AMGGEO format is a DEFORM internal format for handling geometries. This
format can specify a surface as a set of connecting triangles or quadrilaterals. If
quadrilaterals are used, degenerate elements (ie triangles) are not permitted.
The patch normals must be out of the element. That is, the points should be
numbered counterclockwise when viewed from the outside of the object. The file
can be created and edited using a text editor such as vi, emacs, or Notepad.
The file format is
NUMBER OF VERTEX POINTS
1 X1 Y1 Z1
2 X2 Y2 Z2
......
N XN YN ZN
NUMBER OF SURFACE PATCHES
1 first patch connectivity 1 2 3 (1/4)
2 second patch connectivity 1 2 3 (1/4)
......
N Nth patch connectivity 1 2 3 (1/4)
where (1/4) in the connectivity indicates that point 1 is repeated in the 4th
position in a triangular patch. All 4 points are used for a quadrilateral patch.

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A 1'' by 1'' square patch in the xy plane with normal pointing along the z axis
would be defined as follows:
4
1 0. 0. 0.
2 1. 0. 0.
3 1. 1. 0.
4 0. 1. 0.
1
1 1 2 3 4
The square would be defined using two triangles as follows:
4
1 0. 0. 0.
2 1. 0. 0.
3 1. 1. 0.
4 0. 1. 0.
2
1 1 2 3 1
2 1 3 4 1

PATRAN format input
The PATRAN neutral file format is an output format from PATRAN. This format
specifies a either a surface mesh or a solid mesh which can be used to either
represent a geometry. Upon loading a PATRAN neutral file, the user is first
prompted whether the neutral file is either a surface mesh or a solid mesh. After
the user provides the information on whether the file is a surface or a solid mesh,
the user is prompted to provide a conversion factor. This is merely a scaling
variable and the user is recommended to just use the default value of 1.

IDEAS format input
The IDEAS neutral file format is an output format from IDEAS. This format
specifies a surface mesh which can be used to either represent a geometry in
DEFORM or as a basis for a solid mesh. Upon loading an IDEAS universal file,
the user is first prompted to provide a conversion factor. This is merely a scaling
variable and the user is recommended to just use the default value of 1.

Geometry rules
There are several conventions that must be followed when defining object
surfaces in DEFORM.

Orientation of Surface Normals
In DEFORM the surface normals of the closed geometries should point outwards
from the geometry. This is how DEFORM defines the exterior of an object. In the
case of a surface that isn't closed, the surface normals should point toward the
deformable objects and great care should be taken that no nodes see the back of
the object. In the case where a rigid plane is used to constrain a work piece, it is
recommended to make the plane sufficiently large such that the nodes cannot
see around the plane. In the Geometry window, the direction of the surface
normals can be viewed by clicking on the surface normal button in the lower left

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part of the screen. Failure to follow this convention may cause any of the
following problems:
 object won't mesh
 mesh distorts when boundary conditions are applied
 object positioning error using interference positioning

Surface Patches
In DEFORM a surface patch is defined by a section of a surface that is separated
from other portions of the same surface by a 30 degree or greater bend in the
surface. For example, a cube would have six surface patches due to the edges
between each side having a 90 degree bend in the surface. In order to view the
surface patches in DEFORM the user may click on the surface patches button in
the geometry window at the lower left section of the screen. Any bend in the
surface greater than 30 degrees with appear as a thick red line. The benefit of
this feature is that folds in the surface will appear as red slivers in the middle of
the geometry. This provides a method for finding where folds may exist.

Border Extraction
Border extraction is the process of identifying the deformed part surface
geometry from the surface of the finite element mesh. Geometric reasoning is
used to identify critical features such as edges, corners, and symmetry planes
which should be maintained during remeshing.
Border extraction can fail for the following reasons:

Folds or crossed elements
If a closed forming lap develops in the process, the surface geometry will be
ill-defined. If an excessively large time step is used without polygon length
sub stepping, element faces can become crossed, also causing an ill-defined
surface. Both of these cases can frequently be identified using the surface
patches display in the geometry window.
If a legitimate forming lap is developing, the process should be redesigned to
eliminate the lap. If the lap is in a region where it is acceptable, it may be
necessary to use a CAD system to edit the geometry, then remesh the part
and interpolate data.
If element faces are crossed, it is generally necessary to revert to the last
good step in the database. The situation can be avoided by using a smaller
time step, using polygon length sub stepping, using smaller elements around
tight corners, and forcing remeshings on a fixed step or stroke interval (under
remeshing criteria)
Parallel symmetry planes
When using symmetry, the user should not specify parallel fixed velocity
boundary conditions. (For a comprehensive discussion on symmetry planes,
refer to the appendix section on the use of symmetry planes in 3D) In the
case where two parallel symmetry planes are necessary, the user can specify
one fixed velocity boundary condition and one rigid plane with no friction and
a non-separable contact condition (To see how to implement this, please

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refer to the appendix section on the use of symmetry planes in 3D). If two
fixed velocity boundary conditions are set parallel to one another, border
extraction will surely fail, causing any remeshing to fail.
If the symmetry plane is not sufficiently large to cover the entire area where
symmetry needs to be defined, it is possible that nodes may move around the
plane of symmetry and this will also cause border extraction to fail. Since
rigid planes, when used to define symmetry planes, need not have relations
to any objects other than the work piece, they may be arbitrarily large. For
display reasons, the user is not recommended to make the rigid planes
unreasonably large.

Geometry checking
Always check geometry. DEFORM has a checking algorithm that checks for
number of invalid edges, invalid orientation, polygons with small area and
number of surfaces. Every type of error can not be detected. Below are a few
common geometric errors and how they are corrected by DEFORM.
Note: Correct orientation of the surface normals is NOT checked in geometry
checking if all the normals are pointed in a consistent direction.

GEOMETRY ERROR CORRECTION ADVICE
Poly with invalid orientation Either fix the STL file in the solid
modeling package or
find the problematic poly in the
Preprocessor and fix the
STL file manually.
Poly with small area Increase the error tolerance slightly
Poly with invalid edge Fix the geometry in the solid modeling
package

Fix geometry

This feature will handle geometric problems where there are either multiple
surfaces or open (holes) regions by deleting any extra surfaces and filling holes.
Other problems, like unshared edges and

Symmetric Surfaces

DEFORM-3D now supports the ability for the rigid tools to be of the same size as
the work piece at symmetric surfaces. This is determined automatically during
the simulation but can also be defined manually in the object
geometry/symmetric surfaces window (See Figure 55). Both planar symmetry

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and rotational symmetry can be defined. In the case of planar symmetry, the
simulation will have extra information that allows it to prevent material from
flashing around it. In the case of rotational symmetry, meshing will automatically
place the proper boundary conditions on the faces. This is meant as a uniform
place to apply symmetry boundary conditions for all objects.
Specifying Planar Symmetry

To specify planar symmetry, click on the plane to maintain symmetry and then
click the apply button. The planar symmetry condition will be added to the list of
currently specified symmetry.

Specifying Rotational Symmetry

To specify rotational symmetry, specify the point and vector of the rotational axis
as well as the degree of symmetry available. After this, click on the plane to be
applied rotational symmetry. The symmetry condition will be added to the list of
currently specified symmetry.

Figure 55: Symmetry surfaces can be marked in object geometry allowing the user to
make a tool the same size as the work piece. This feature is activated automatically during
the simulation. Note the symmetry surfaces are marked in bright green.

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Geometric polygon deletion

Polygons in object geometry can be manually deleted within the DEFORM
Preprocessor. This is not recommended as a manner of performing major
changes to a geometry rather it is recommended to correct slight mistakes within
a geometry or to make minor trimming operations. (See Figure 56).

Figure 56: The geometry polygon deletion window.

2.4.6. Object meshing

The object meshing window can generate a mesh very easily with the first
meshing window (See Figure 57). A mesh can be imported into the preprocessor
from a keyword file, database file or any supported mesh formats (PDA or
universal file). The number of elements to be generated in an object can be

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specified merely by adjusting the slider bar and selecting an appropriate value for
the current simulation. After this, the surface mesh can be viewed by clicking
Preview or the solid mesh can be generated by clicking Generate Mesh. The
mesh can be examined for problems using the Check Mesh function. If a
simulation is continued from a previously running simulation, the recommended
button to click is Manual Remesh. This automatically performs border extraction
and will prompt the user for boundary condition interpolation.

Figure 57: Meshing window.

The Mesh Generation window allows the user to generate a both a surface mesh
and a solid mesh for the current object. The user has three methods of
controlling surface mesh density:
 System Defined method uses a system of weights and assigned windows
to control the size of elements during the initial surface mesh generation
and subsequent automatic remeshings. This method includes user
controlled mesh density windows.
 User-Defined allows the user to specify certain areas on the object to
have higher element densities relative to other areas of the object during
the initial surface mesh generation only (this density specification is not
referenced during automatic remeshing).
Mesh density refers to the size of elements that will be generated on a object

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surface. The mesh density is normally based on the specified total number of
surface elements and "Parameter" mesh density controls. The sample grid
resolution and the critical point tolerances also affect the mesh density, but to a
lesser extent than the other parameters. If mesh density windows are used with
absolute mesh density, the number of surface elements will be completely
determined by the specified mesh density.
A higher mesh density (more elements per unit area/volume) offers increased
accuracy and resolution of geometry and field variables such as strain,
temperature, and damage. However, in general, the time required for the
computer to solve the problem increases as number of nodes increases. Thus, it
is desirable to have a large number of small elements (high density) in regions
where large gradients in strain, temperature, or damage values are present, or in
regions with complex geometry. Conversely, to conserve computation resources,
it is desirable to have a small number of relatively large elements in regions
where very little deformation occurs, or where the gradients are very small.
Other issues related to mesh generation:
 Too coarse a mesh around corners may cause mesh degradation,
excessive volume loss and remeshing problems
 Too coarse a mesh in regions with localized surface effects (i.e. high
damage along a surface) may cause peak values to decline due to
interpolation errors during remeshing.

In Version 6.0, a checkbox has been added to allow the user to create a finer
internal mesh. This feature can be used when the user would like to see more
solid elements throughout the thickness of the part. Note that the total number of
elements may be significantly increased when this option is used. A comparison
of with and without fine internal mesh is seen in Figure 58.

Figure 58: Comparison of work piece from UPSET.KEY with 10000 elements specified at
generation. Left image shows the internal mesh without fine internal with and right side is
with fine internal mesh.

Basic mesh controls

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Figure 59: Detailed settings meshing parameters window.

Surface elements (MGNELS)
The number of surface elements represents the approximate number of surface
elements that will be generated by the mesh generator. The Automatic Mesh
Generator (AMG) takes the value for MGNELS and generates a mesh that will
contain approximately the same number of elements.
This value is ignored if mesh windows are used with absolute mesh density
definition.

Element size ratio (MGSIZR)
The maximum size ratio between elements is one of several ways to control the
mesh density during automatic mesh generation (AMG) by specifying the ratio of
surface element edge lengths. For a value of 3 for MGSIZR, the largest element
edge on an object will be roughly 3 times the size of the smallest element edge
on the same object. If equal sized elements are desired, then Size Ratio = 1.

Mesh weighting factors
The weighting factors or parameters (system defined mesh density) for boundary

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curvature, temperature, strain and strain rate specify relative mesh density
weights to be assigned to the associated parameter.
Temperature, strain, and strain rate densities are assigned based on gradients in
these parameters, not absolute parameter values. That is, a region with a rapid
temperature change in a particular direction will receive more elements that a
region with a uniform high temperature.
The values from all the mesh density keywords are combined during the mesh
generation process to create a mesh density distribution within the geometric
boundary.

Polygon edge length based weighting factor (MGWCUV)
The Polygon edge length weighting will apply a higher mesh density to regions
where the geometry edge lengths are smaller. The purpose of this is to apply a
finer mesh in regions where smaller facets are used to give a finer mesh in the
region of small features. If MGWCUV is greater than 0, the boundary area with
curves will receive a higher mesh density in that area. If MGWCUV is set to 0,
this weighting criterion is ignored.

Strain base weighting factor (MGWSTN)
This parameter will maintain a high mesh density in regions of high strain
gradient.

Strain rate based weighting factor (MGWSTR)
This parameter will maintain a high mesh density in regions of high strain rate
gradient

Temperature based weighting factor (MGWTMP)
This parameter will maintain a high mesh density in regions of high temperature
gradient.

User defined mesh density
Refer also to Mesh density windows
When a user defined mesh density is selected, the density values are set through
the Display Window. By selecting a user defined mesh density, the relative mesh
density definition screen becomes active. After clicking this button the user will
see the Display Window through which the mesh densities can be set. The
density value is used to specify a weight to be given to an area. Note that the
actual number only has meaning in relation to another density point. For
example, a patch with a weighting of 4 will have a mesh that is two times as
dense as a patch with a weighting of 2. One can also choose between setting the
density values as boundary or interior points. If a mistake is made, Delete will
delete the current point (shown in red) and Delete All will delete all density values
set.
Note: For more detailed instructions, see DEFORM tutorial Lab 6, Mesh
Generation for Dies in SPIKE.

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Mesh density windows
The Mesh density window concept is similar to a user defined mesh density. The
mesh density specified for a given window is applied to any geometry point (node
or STL vertex) inside the window. However, the mesh density window is used
during remeshing as well as initial mesh generation, whereas user defined mesh
densities are used only during initial generation. It can also be assigned a
velocity and it can be defined in an area such as a flash gutter which the work
piece has not yet reached.
Mesh density is defined by the number of surface nodes per unit length. The
mesh density values may specify a mesh density ratio between two regions in
the object or an absolute element edge length in a region on a surface. In the
case of a relative mesh density between one or more regions, the unspecified
areas will be given the global value. In the case of absolute mesh density, the
unspecified regions will also take on the global value. In the case of absolute
mesh density specification, the user should be careful what value of density is
used.
Important considerations in mesh density window definition:
1. There needs to be only one mesh density window. The global density
value will used for any region that is not inside a window. This differs from
2D
2. Be aware of large mesh density ratios. A 3:1 density ratio is large, and a
5:1 ratio is extreme. Extremely large density ratios may lead to problems
in mesh generation.
3. Absolute mesh density is a powerful tool, in that it allows specific
resolution to be defined in various areas of a part. Consider a feature .5''
thick. To maintain 3 elements across the thickness of the feature, specify
an absolute mesh density of 6 elements/inch in that region. As more
material enters this region, the total number of elements will be increased
as necessary to maintain the desired resolution.
4. If absolute density is used, the user must be careful of the values that are
specified since there is no specified upper bound on the number of
elements.

Defining mesh density windows
1. Select a window number under the mesh density window header. Up to 20
different windows can be defined.
2. Click the add bounding point button and click on the part to create a mesh
density window.
3. Click on the Drag window button to adjust the size and location of the
mesh density window.
4. Once a window is defined, its density is entered in the box under the
Parameters header.
5. A velocity for the mesh window can also be defined in the x and/or y
direction. These values are also found under the Parameters header.
6. If the window needs to be rotated, the user can use rotation buttons in the
display box.

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7. After the window is applied in the position that the user desires, pressing
the Show button in the display box will highlight the surface nodes that are
encapsulated by the mesh window. The Hide button will de-highlight the
nodes contained by the mesh density window.
Mesh density windows have the following data associated with them:
absolute mesh density
Absolute mesh density defines the number of elements per unit length on the
surface of the part. For example, an absolute mesh density of 8 will give 8
elements per inch (millimeter in SI units), or each element edge length will be
approximately 0.125 long. With absolute mesh density, the total number of
elements specified on the Meshing/Remeshing window is disregarded. The
number of elements will be adjusted throughout the simulation, maintaining
an optimum problem resolution. This is the recommended mesh definition
method.
relative mesh density
Relative mesh density defines the ratio of element edge lengths. The total
number of surface elements is determined by the number of elements block
on the Meshing/Remeshing window.
points
The Points represents the total number of points that make up the mesh
density window.
density
The Density is the desired density value for a given window.
velocity
The Velocity is the velocity of the window. This allows the window to move
with the dies. In cases where punch velocity is not known, such as a hammer
forging, or a load controlled press, the best estimate of a constant velocity
should be made.
Note: If a velocity is assigned to a window, it should be repositioned as
necessary before a second or third operation is performed.

Weighting factor defined edge length
In DEFORM-3D Version 3.2, a new automatic mesh density determination
feature has been added. This feature is intended to reduce the reliance on mesh
density windows to get an optimized mesh.
The mesh weighting is determined by the slider bars on the Mesh window.
Polygon Edge Length will put more elements in areas of greater curvature. The
other slider bars will weight based on Strain, Strain Rate and Temperature
Gradient (not absolute values).
To activate automatic density determination, Select "Absolute Density" on the
Mesh Density Windows dialog, but do not define any windows. Enter a global
density. This will be the coarsest mesh anywhere in the part.
The smallest element size will be determined by the Maximum Size Ratio block
on the main Meshing/Remeshing window. A maximum size ratio of 3 or 4 is
probably a good place to start. As always with absolute mesh density, the total

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number of elements is ignored.
How to select mesh density
Determine the finest mesh density required based on anticipated curvature, die
corners, defect size, etc. For example, for a .125 radius, we would like to have
elements slightly smaller than this (maybe .100"). This would correspond to an
absolute mesh density of 10 (1 / 0.100). Now determine the global density by
taking 1/3 of this value, so enter 3 in the global density field in the Mesh Density
Windows window.

Surface mesh generation
When all of the Mesh parameters have been set, a surface mesh can be
generated by clicking on the Generate Surface Mesh button. When a new mesh
is generated for an object that currently has a mesh, the old mesh will be deleted
and replaced with the new mesh. If there is a failure in the generation of the
surface mesh, please refer to the Troubleshooting section.

Solid mesh generation
After the surface mesh is generated, the user should inspect the mesh before
generating the solid mesh. Pay particular attention to adequate mesh density in
regions with complex geometry. After an acceptable surface mesh has been
generated the solid mesh may be generated by clicking the Generate Solid Mesh
button. If a surface mesh is imported as the geometry, the user may forgo the
surface mesh generation and directly place a solid mesh on the surface mesh. If
the solid mesh generation fails, please refer to the Troubleshooting section.

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Figure 60: Remeshing criteria window.

Automatic remeshing criteria
Automatic remeshing (Autoremesh) is the most convenient way to handle the
remeshing of objects undergoing large plastic deformation. The Remeshing
Criteria Window contains a group of parameters that control when and how often
the mesh will be regenerated on a meshed object based on assignment of
certain triggers (See Figure 60). There are four keywords that control the
initiation of a remeshing procedure (RMDPTH, RMTIME, RMSTEP, RMSTRK)
for an object. When the remeshing criteria of any of these keywords has been
fulfilled or the mesh becomes unusable (negative Jacobian), the object will be
remeshed. During the simulation, if an object satisfies any of its remeshing
criteria, a new mesh is generated, the solution information from the old mesh is
interpolated onto the new mesh and the simulation continues. Due to the nature
of 3D meshes, a mesh may degrade beyond the point where it is usable if no
remeshing triggers are used. For typical meshes, remeshing every 10 to 30 time
steps may be appropriate.

Interference Depth (RMDPTH)
Remeshing will be triggered when the an element edge of meshed body has

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been penetrated by the master object by a specified amount. The penetration
distance is determined differently depending on whether the specified distance is
positive or negative.

Penetration Distance (absolute):
If a positive number (in the unit of length) is entered, the program will conduct a
check on each surface edge that has a contact node on each end. The distance
from the middle of the edge to the die surface is calculated. If the maximum
penetration depth exceeds the specified limit, remeshing will be triggered

Penetration Distance (relative):
If a negative number (a fraction) is entered, the program will conduct a check on
each surface edge that has a contact node on each end. The distance from the
middle of the edge to the die surface is calculated and divided by the original
length of the edge. If the ratio exceeds the magnitude of the specified value,
remeshing will be triggered.

Default Value:
The pre-processor now has a default value 0.8 with a relative setting.

Purpose of Criteria:
When a sharp edge on a tool or die impinges on the work piece, the sharp edge
may deeply penetrate an element edge. If this depth is severe the elements may
get stretched out and remeshing may become difficult. Before this depth is
achieved, remeshing with place nodes about the edge and allow the simulation to
continue unhampered.

Maximum stroke increment (RMSTRK)
Remeshing will be triggered when the stroke value is evenly divisible by the
stroke remeshing increment.

Maximum time increment (RMTIME)
Remeshing will be triggered when the time value is evenly divisible by the
remeshing increment. If remeshing is specified for every 10 seconds, remeshing
will occur at 10, 20, 30, etc. If automatic remeshing is triggered by a negative
Jacobian on a previous step, the remeshing will still occur.

Maximum step increment (RMSTEP)
Remeshing will be triggered at the end of a step whenever the current step
number is evenly divisible by the step increment. If remeshing is specified every
15 steps, remeshing will occur at 15, 30, 45, etc.

Manual remeshing
During the course of a DEFORM simulation, extensive deformation of plastic or
porous objects may cause elements in those object meshes to become so
distorted that the mesh is no longer usable (negative Jacobian). If this condition

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occurs, the simulation will abort and an error message will be written to the
ProblemID.MSG file. To continue a simulation after a mesh has become
unusable, the object must be remeshed. Remeshing is the process of replacing a
distorted mesh with a new undistorted mesh and interpolating the field variables
(strain, velocity, damage, and temperature etc.) from the old mesh to the new
mesh.

In the case of a hexahedral (brick) mesh, 3D cannot currently create a brick
mesh so if a remesh is required for a elasto-plastic brick mesh, the user needs to
remesh outside of DEFORM and interpolate the state variables and re-apply the
boundary conditions to the new mesh.
In most cases, remeshing and interpolation occurs automatically without user
intervention.
It is also possible to manually regenerate a mesh on an object and interpolate the
data from the old mesh. The procedure to perform a manual remeshing is as
follows:

Procedure
1. Open the preprocessor.
2. Select the step from the database where remeshing is to be performed
and load this in the pre-processor. If the object will not remesh at the last
step, it may be necessary to remesh at an earlier step.
3. Select the object to be remeshed.
4. Select the Manual Remeshing option in the Objects window.
5. If the part geometry is to be modified (such as trimming flash or punching
out a web, it may be done at this point using the geometry editor).
6. Adjust mesh windows or other mesh parameters as necessary.
7. Generate a new surface mesh.
8. Generate a new solid mesh.
9. Interpolate data from the old mesh to the new mesh by clicking on the OK
button.
10. Interpolate boundary conditions from the old mesh to the new mesh
unless:
 Dies are being changed at the same time the part is being remeshed
 The mesh visibly distorts on remeshing.
 A negative Jacobian error occurs immediately when the problem is
restarted
11. Generate a database and start simulation.
If the mesh visibly distorts after remeshing or if you are changing dies at the
same time, regenerate the mesh and interpolate data but not boundary
conditions. If boundary conditions are not interpolated, it is necessary to recreate
all velocity, heat transfer, inter-object, or other boundary conditions. If there are
no changes to the geometry (such as trimming the part) then the simplified
manual remeshing icon can be used, this extracts the border and shows the
mesh generation dialog. After meshing when exiting, interpolation of state
variables and boundary conditions is carried out.

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2.4.7. Object material
Any object which has a mesh defined must also have a material assigned to it.
The material data can be defined in the Materials data section of the pre-
processor. Assignment is made through the general selection.
Either phase or mixture materials may be assigned to each object. In general,
phase materials which are not components of an alloy system will be assigned
individually. An alloy system mixture will be assigned to the appropriate objects
as a mixture, and relative volume fractions of the constituent phases should be
assigned under element data.
For example:
 A tool is made of H-13. H-13 is defined as a phase. It should be assigned
to appropriate tooling as a phase.
 A work piece is made of 1040 Steel. The simulation begins with the object
composed of 100% volume fraction pearlite. 1040 is defined as a mixture
of pearlite, banite, austenite, and martensite. The 1040 mixture properties
are assigned to the object, and the volume fraction is set to 100% pearlite
under element properties.

2.4.8. Object initial conditions
Initial conditions can be specified for any object related state variable in
DEFORM. The most common initial condition specification is object temperature
which can be specified in the Objects->General window of DEFORM-3D (See
Figure 52). For heat treatment problems with variable carbon content in the work
piece, dominant atom content may also be specified. For meshed objects, initial
object temperature and initial dominant atom content are specified by assigning
values to all the nodes.
When a mesh is generated, the nodes in that mesh will be assigned values from
the Meshing Defaults fields under the Defaults tab in the Object window. Uniform
object temperature can be specified using the TEMP button on the object
window. Nodal values may also be specified using the Nodes Data menu. Values
for an entire object can be set using the initialize (i) icon next to the appropriate
data field.
For non-meshed rigid tools, a constant object temperature may be set using the
reference temperature (REFTMP) under the Objects, Properties menu.
Note: Using this approximation will tend to over-estimate temperature loss as the
die surface will not heat up during the simulation. This effect can be
compensated for by reducing the inter-object heat transfer coefficient (IHTCOF).
For any object defined as a mixture, the initial volume fraction (VOLFC) and
maximum volume fraction transformed (VOLFS) must be assigned for all volume
fractions. In general VOLFC, and VOLFS should be initialized to the same value.
The volume fraction initialization is under the Object Data, Elements dialog under
the Transformation tab.

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Figure 61: Object deformation properties.

2.4.9. Object properties
Miscellaneous object parameters which affect either thermo-mechanical behavior
of the object, or numerical solution behavior, are specified in the Object-
Properties window (See Figure 61).

Deformation properties

Average strain rate (AVGSTR)
The average strain rate is a characteristic average value of the effective strain
rate. An approximation of this value should be given at the start of the simulation.
A reasonable approximation can be obtained from:

where V is the initial velocity of the primary die, and h is the maximum height of
the work piece.

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Limiting strain rate (LMTSTR)
The limiting strain rate defines a limiting value of effective strain rate below which
a plastic or porous material is considered rigid. The stress-strain-rate relationship
in the rigid region is approximated by

DEFORM automatically maintains the ratio between average strain rate and
limiting strain rate. Generally, the value of limiting strain rate should be 0.1% to
1.0% of the average strain rate.
If the limiting strain rate is too small, the solution may have difficulty converging.
If it is too large, the accuracy of the solution will be degraded. If the problem is
not converging, the limiting strain rate can be increased for 2 or 3 steps, then
returned to the original value.

Volume penalty constant (PENVOL)
The volume penalty constant specifies a large positive value that is used to
enforce volume constancy of plastic objects. The default value of 106 is adequate
for most simulations. If the value is too small, unacceptably large volume losses
may occur. If the value is too large, the solution may have difficulty converging.

Target Volume (TRGVOL)
There are several causes of volume loss in finite element analysis.
 The penalty formulation used by DEFORM will naturally loose a fractional
percentage of volume at each step. This is normal and generally not a
significant cause of concern.
 If a large time step is used and sub stepping is disabled, when contact
occurs nodes will penetrate slave surfaces, then be repositioned at the
end of the step. This repositioning can cause slight volume loss. Over the
course of a simulation, this can become significant.
 As elements of slave objects stretch around corners of master objects, the
elements will cut the corner of the object. The volume which crosses the
corner will be lost on remeshing. This phenomenon can be limited by the
use of small elements around corners.
Volume compensation can be activated to maintain or restore part volume during
remeshing. The target volume should be set to the initial part volume. This value
can be obtained from the volume icon on the Meshing/Remeshing window.
For porous materials, the volume is expected to change throughout the
simulation. If volume compensation is activated, the current part volume will be
maintained during remeshing.
For certain geometries with large free surfaces, volume compensation can cause
distortion. If this distortion is unacceptable, the best alternative is to use a fine
mesh, and set polygon length sub stepping to a small value. Frequent forced
remeshings may be useful if element stretching around corners is a problem.

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Elasto-plastic initial guess (ELPSOL)
The convergence of an elasto-plastic solution is dependent on the initial guess of
the stress-strain state. Three initial guess solutions are available:
 Plastic solution: Uses the purely plastic deformation data to generate the
initial guess.
 Elastic solution: Uses the purely elastic deformation data to generate the
initial guess.
 Previous step solution: Uses the elasto-plastic solution from the previous
step to generate the initial guess.
The previous step solution seems to give the best convergence in most cases. If
convergence is poor for a particular problem, the elastic or plastic solution can be
used.

Creep solutions (CREEP) [MIC]
Activates creep calculations for a particular object. For more information on creep
calculations, refer to chapter 6.

Reference point (REFPOS)
Point on object used in distance calculation for the Stopping Distance stopping
control. Refer to Stopping Distance in the Simulation Controls-Stopping / Step-
Stopping Controls subsection.

Thermal properties

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Figure 62: Object thermal properties window.

Reference temperature (REFTMP)
For elastic objects, the reference temperature is the temperature on which
thermal expansion calculations are based. That is, thermal strains are given by:

where is the Coefficient of thermal expansion, T0 is the reference temperature
and T is the material temperature.
For elasto-plastic objects, instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion is
used..
Coefficient of thermal expansion is set in the Material Properties, Elastic menu.

Truncation temperature (TMPLMT)
The Truncation Temperature is the maximum nodal temperature allowed at any
point in the object. If the calculated temperature exceeds this value, it will be
reduced to this value.

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Stopping temperature (OTPRNG)
The stopping temperature sets an upper and lower temperature limit which, if
exceeded, will stop the simulation. The user has the option of enforcing this limit
if any single node exceeds the temperature, or only if all nodes exceed the
temperature.

Figure 63: Object hardness properties.

Fracture properties

This feature allows the user to activate the number of fracture elements which
will determine whether a fracture simulation should perform element deletion or
perform element softening. For a overview of fracture, please refer to Appendix
F. This window is seen in Figure 64.

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Figure 64: The fracture object properties window.

Hardness properties [MIC]
Material hardness predictions can be based on:
 Volume fraction of various phases
 Jominy curve data
 Cooling time
Hardness data for a material can be entered in the Material Properties menu. A
description of the hardness prediction method is given there.
Referenced Start temperature, referenced end temperature: Upper and lower
temperature values for Jominy or cooling time hardness prediction curves.

112

Figure 65: Object rotational symmetry properties.

Rotational Symmetry
This boundary condition allows the user to match the velocity of the nodes of any
surface of a body to the nodes of any other surface on the same body. The
purpose of this is to model the more general case where rotational motion occurs
during the forming of a part such as in the case of the forging of a helical gear.
The manner in which to setup a rotational symmetry problem is to go to the
Object, Properties window for the object and select the Rot-Sym tab. Set the
following values:
1. Angle The angle of the part simulated in units of degrees. For example,
180 means that only half the part is simulated and 90 means one quarter
of the part is simulated.
2. Center A point on the centerline about which the deformation occurs. The
format is in global (x,y,z) coordinates.
3. Axis The vector through which the centerline is parallel to. The format is in
(x,y,z) coordinates. For example, if the user wants to specify a vector
parallel to the z axis, the value of (0,0,1) should be typed in.
The second item the user needs to specify is the surfaces which have the
rotational symmetry relationship to one another. The manner in which this is
done is to place contact boundary conditions on face which obeys the right-hand

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rule. The boundary condition can be applied under the Objects, boundary
conditions window using the advanced boundary conditions. The user needs to
select the face which obeys the right-hand rule and apply self-contact conditions.
This will allow the simulation engine to know which faces the rotational symmetry
condition applies to.

Note: In the case of a tetrahedral, rigid-plastic mesh, do not define self-
contact under inter-object boundary conditions. In any other case of
rotational symmetry, self-contact should be defined.

2.4.10. Object boundary conditions
Boundary conditions specify how the boundary of an object interacts with other
objects and with the environment. The most commonly used boundary conditions
are heat exchange with the environment for simulations involving heat transfer,
prescribed velocity for enforcing symmetry or prescribing movement in problems
such as drawing where a part is pulled through a die, shrink fit for modeling
shrink rings on tooling, prescribed force, for die stress analysis and contact
between objects in the model.

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Figure 66: Object boundary condition window.

Defining object boundary conditions
Boundary conditions are specified and enforced at nodes in the finite element
mesh. The basic procedure for setting any boundary condition except Contact is
the same:
1. Select the appropriate condition type.
2. Select the direction (where applicable).
3. Select the nodes to which boundary conditions will be applied using one of
the selection tools in the lower left button bar.
4. Apply the boundary conditions.
The selected nodes will be highlighted. To apply the boundary conditions click
the Generate BCC's button. Colored markers will highlight the nodes to which
boundary conditions have been applied. To delete specific boundary conditions,
select the start and end nodes, and click the Delete BCC's button. To delete all
boundary conditions of the specified type and direction, click the Initialize BCC's
button.
Note: You can either select faces of the surface by using the surface patches
feature or use the node button to select individual nodes.

Deformation boundary conditions

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Velocity
Velocity of each node can be specified independently in the x and y directions (or
x, y, and z directions in 3d). Velocity boundary conditions are normally set to zero
for symmetry conditions (see section on symmetry in this manual), but may also
be set to a specified non-zero value for processes such as drawing in which a
work piece is pulled through a die.

Force
Force boundary conditions specify the force applied to the node by an external
object. The force is specified in default units. For die stress analysis, the force
that the die exerted on the work piece can be reversed and interpolated onto the
dies by using the interpolation function. Refer to the tutorial labs on die stress
analysis for a detailed procedure for using force interpolation to perform die
stress analysis.

Pressure
The pressure boundary conditions specifies a uniform, or linearly varying, force
per unit area on the element faces connecting the specified nodes.

Displacement and shrink fit
A specified displacement can be specified in any direction for each node. This is
frequently used for specifying shrink fit conditions between a die insert and a
shrink ring. More information on this is available in the section on die stress
analysis in this manual.

Movement
The movement of nodes on an object can be specified. If the movement
boundary condition is specified, object movement controls must also be
specified.

Contact
The Contact boundary condition displays inter-object boundary contact
conditions on a given object. The user should gain some experience with
DEFORM before using this option. The contact conditions are stored in three
components to represent the fact that there are three degrees of freedom for any
given node.

Thermal

Heat exchange with the environment
This boundary condition specifies that heat exchange between element faces
bounded by these nodes and their environment should occur. The contact
boundary condition determines whether exchange will occur to the ambient

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atmosphere or to a contacting object.

Heat flux
Specifies an energy flux per unit area over the face of the element bounded by
the nodes. Units are energy/time/area.

Nodal heat
Specifies a heat source at the given nodes. Units are energy/time.

Temperature
Specifies a fixed temperature at the given nodes.

Heat Exchange windows
This function allows the user to define heat exchange conditions for local areas
on a body by use of three dimensional window. To use heat exchange windows,
perform the following actions:
1. Go to the Boundary Conditions window.
2. Select the Thermal tab.
3. Select the Heat exchange windows button.
4. Note the tools in the lower left corner of the display window changes and
the new heat exchange window that comes up.
5. At this point, heat exchange windows can be defined using the tools in the
lower left corner of the display window. Each window has its own local
environmental temperature, convection coefficient and emissivity. See
Figure for an example heat exchange window.
6. You can define up to 20 independent windows by the method. If two
regions share the same space, the lower number window wins.

Diffusion [DIF]

Diffusion with the environment
Specifies diffusion of the dominant atom through the boundary elements
bordered by the indicated nodes. Environment dominant atom content and
surface reaction rate are specified under the Simulation Controls, Processing
Conditions menu. Environment content and reaction rate for various regions of
the part may be modified by using diffusion windows.

Fixed atom content
Specifies a fixed dominant atom content at the given nodes.

Atom flux
Specifies a fixed dominant atom flux rate over the elements bordered by the
indicated nodes.

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2.4.11. Contact boundary conditions
Contact boundary conditions are applied to nodes of a slave object, and specify
contact between those nodes and the surface of a master object (see master-
slave relationships under the Inter-object data section). If a node is specified to
be in contact with a particular object, it will placed on the surface of that object. If
this requires changing the position of that node, it will be changed as necessary.
Contact boundary conditions are generated under the Inter-object , Contact
Boundary Conditions.
It is for this reason that the user should be VERY careful with how contact is
specified. If it is improperly used, the mesh may be damaged and very often
remeshing cannot aid this situation since the AMG cannot interpret the users
intentions.
Contact boundary conditions can be displayed for a given object using the
Objects, Boundary Conditions, Advanced Deformation BCC's icon.

Figure 67: The movement controls window.

2.4.12. Object movement controls

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Movement controls can be applied to:

1. Rigid objects;
2. It can also be defined boundary nodes of meshed objects with a movement
boundary condition. The surface defined by these nodes can be thought of as a
"rigid surface".

The lower portion of the opening window of the movement controls window (See
Figure 67) allows the user to import or save movement specifications from other
keyword or database files. The user can also preview the motion of the die using
the preview button.

Movement Preview

Figure 68: The movement preview dialog.

Clicking the preview button allows the user to see the movement that has been
specified for a given object (See Figure 68). The buttons in the movement
preview dialog allow the user to see the movement of the current object in the
display screen. This will only take into account only translation and rotational
movement but not force or torque control.

Translational Movement

During the simulation, the constrained nodes will move synchronously in the
speed and direction defined by the movement controls. (See Figure 69).

Speed control

This is the default movement control. This specifies the speed and direction of a
tool. Speed can be defined as a constant, or as a function of time or stroke.
When an object is rigid, the entire object will move at the assigned speed. When
the object is elastic, plastic, or porous, each node with a movement boundary
condition assigned will maintain the assigned speed. Note that movement
boundary conditions should never be assigned for all surface nodes. In general,
no more than 1/2 to 2/3 of the boundary nodes on an object should have
movement boundary conditions.

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Symmetry planes are defined with V=0 boundary conditions perpendicular to the
applied surface. Due to limitations of border extraction during remeshing, parallel
symmetry planes should be defined using at least one rigid symmetry surface,
instead of V=0 boundary conditions on both sides of the object.

Figure 69: Movement controls (Speed)

Force control

For force control, the speed of the object is constrained such that the specified
load is maintained. When the object is rigid, the load is the resultant load applied
by all non-rigid objects that contact it. When the object is elastic, plastic, or
porous, the load is the sum of the nodal loads of all nodes with movement
boundary condition codes defined. This boundary condition adds a degree of
freedom to the system of equations to be solved during the simulation. Aribitrary
application of this condition can create difficultly in obtaining a converged
solution. Please refer to the appendix section for guidelines on applying this
movement in the most effective manner.

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Figure 70: Movement controls (hammer press settings shown)

Hammer energy

Hammer forging operation is controlled by energy. During a working stroke, the
deformation proceeds until the total kinetic energy is dissipated by plastic
deformation of the material and by elastic deformation of ram and anvil when the
die and ram faces contact each other.
During hammer forging operation, only a portion of the kinetic energy of ram is
used for the plastic deformation of work piece. The rest of the energy is lost
through anvil and machine frame. The blow efficiency, B is defined by:

B = WU / ET

where WU is the energy consumed for the plastic energy of work piece and ET
the total kinetic energy of ram. These values can be set in the movement
controls window (See Figure 70).
There are basically two types of hammer. The first is an anvil type hammer and
the other counter blow hammer. The formulations and assumptions used for the
two types of hammer forging operations are given below:

1. Anvil Type Hammer
In an anvil type hammer, the workpiece, together with the lower die set, is placed
on an anvil which is stationary. In a simple gravity drop hammer, the ram is
accelerated by gravity and accumulates energy. Therefore, the blow energy, ET,
is calculated by:

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ET = mT g H

where mT is the mass of the ram, g the acceleration due to gravity and H is the
ram dropping height. In a power drop hammer, the ram is accelerated by steam,
cold or hot air pressure in addition to gravity. The total blow energy is given by:

ET = (mT g+ pm A) H

where A is the piston area and pm is the indicated steam, oil, or air pressure on
the piston. The velocity of ram, VT, is calculated by:

The plastic deformation energy during a small time increment t is calculated by:

where LT is the deformation load at the ram, ED is the energy consumed by the
workpiece over the ram travel increment and s is the ram travel during t . After
the increment, the blow energy is adjusted by:

This adjustment accounts for elastic energy loss. The simulation is repeated until
the blow energy ET becomes zero. The characteristic values of Anvil type
hammers are given in the following table:

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Figure 71: Movement controls (Counter blow Hammer)

2. Counterblow Hammer

A counterblow hammer can be specified for movement by selecting the Counter
blow hammer checkbox as seen in Figure 71. After this, the other moving
hammer object can be specified as well as the mass of the other moving
hammer. The mass of the objects is not required to be equal but the total energy
is always split between the two hammer dies.

Screw press

The unique characteristic of a screw press is the method of driving it. A motor
drives a flywheel which is either directly connected or can be connected to a
screw spindle. The screw spindle transmits the rotation through the threads,
which have pitch angles usually between 13 and 17 degrees, to a linear
movement of the main ram. On contact with the work piece, the complete kinetic
energy of the flywheel and the ram is transformed into useful work (work on the
work piece) and losses (elastic deformation work in the work piece and the frame
of the structure and friction). The elastic deformation work results in a reaction
force in all the press parts lying in the force transmission path.
The Screw press energy method will mimic the movement of a screw type press
on the selected die. In a screw press a flywheel is taken to a given speed and a
clutch is engaged. Once the clutch is engaged, the screw press begins to draw
energy to drive the screw from the flywheel. Once the flywheel energy is

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expended the stroke is over and the movement will stop. Screw controlled
movement can only be specified for rigid objects or deforming objects with a
movement boundary condition applied. Motion of which is controlled by screw
press parameters can only be applied in the +X, +Y, +Z, -X, -Y or -Z directions.
The data required to run a screw press driven tool is:

1. Blow Energy: The Blow Energy is a measure of the total energy that the
flywheel will contain when the desired speed has been reached and prior to
engaging the clutch. The units for blow energy are klb-inch in English units and
N-mm for SI units.

2. Blow Efficiency: The Blow Efficiency represents the fraction of the total
energy that will be converted to deformation energy. The rest of the energy is
absorbed through the clutch mechanism, friction, and the machine frame. There
are no units for this quantity.

3. Moment of Inertia: The Moment of Inertia is the moment of inertia of the
flywheel. The English units of inertia are lbf sec2 inch, and the SI units are kg
m2. The mass moment of inertia for a circular disc with the Z-axis perpendicular
to the center is I = 2 ET /2 where ET is the total energy of the flywheel, and  is
the angular velocity in radians per second.

4. Ram Displacement: The Ram Displacement specifies the distance per
revolution of the flywheel that the screw will advance. This helps in determining
the linear velocity of the ram. The English units for Ram Displacement are
inch/revolution, while the SI units are mm/revolution. If only the pitch angle and
diameter of the spindle is known, the Ram Displacement can be calculated using
dsin(t) where where d is the diameter of spindle and t is the pitch angle of the
spindle.

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Figure 72: Movement controls (Hydraulic controls – Speed control)

Hydraulic press

To use the hydraulic press model the user can control one of two manners.

1. Speed: The speed of the press can be input as a constant or as a function of
time or stroke (See Figure 72). With this, the power limit of the hydraulic press is
also entered in the familiar table format as a function of load. See Example Lab
21: Hydraulic Press Simulation for an example of a simulation using the hydraulic
press model. Note: To activate maximum speed control, the power limit must be
defined.

2. Average strain rate: The average strain rate control can also used to define
the press speed (See Figure 73). Note that the initial billet height needs to be
provided and should be a reasonably accurate measurement.

Allowed maximum strain rate: This setting can be defined in addition to the
controls mentioned above. This will prevent the speed from exceeding a
condition where the maximum strain rate in the part would exceed the defined
maximum strain rate.

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Figure 73: Movement controls (Hydraulic controls – Average strain rate control)

Mechanical press

The Mechanical Press type replicates the cyclic motion of a mechanical press.
The parameters required to simulate the motion are the total displacement of the
press (Dtot) relative to the current displacement (Dcur), and the number of strokes
per unit of time (S'). Using these parameters, DEFORM can compute the die
speed at any point of the travel of the die. The movement direction can only be
specified in the X, Y, Z, -X, -Y or -Z directions.
The equation to derive the die speed is:

The parameters required to specify the movement of a mechanical press are :

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Figure 74: The mechanical press settings window

1. Total stroke: The total stroke for the mechanical press represents the total
travel of the die from its top position to its lowest position. In English units this is
inch, in SI units this is mm.

2. Strokes per second: The Strokes per seconds represents the frequency of
the press blows. This is a measure of blows per second or cycles per second.

3. Forging Stroke: This value is total remaining distance of the die in the given
stroke. This value will depend on the current position of the moving die relative
to the stationary die.

4. Direction: Direction is used to designate a direction in which the object's
stroke will be applied.

5. Connecting-Rod Length: As seen in Figure 75, the connecting rod length
can have an influence on the speed of the ram. If the length of the connecting
rod is known, it can be input as a field. If it is not known, it can left as zero and
its contribution to the ram speed will not be considered.

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Figure 75: Sketch of a simple direct crank drive.

Knuckle or Wedge Press

In the case of less common presses, there is a capability to model their
movement by defining them strictly as a velocity profile. The velocity profile is
defined as an angle (in degrees) versus speed. As an angle, this has to do with
the angle of rotation of a driving motor.

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Figure 76: Secondary controls for mechanical press

Secondary Control(s)

The type of control will depend on the type of movement specified. In the case of
a mechanical press (as seen in Figure 76) the only control is based on load. In
the case of a hammer, there are no secondary controls since the only manner in
which to stop is to run out of energy. In the case of a hydraulic press, it can stop
based on the load or a minimum velocity.

Sliding Die Movement

Defining sliding movement can be done in the movement controls window as
seen in Figure 77. To use spring-loaded dies, the object should be rigid and
should not have any other movement specified. The following items should be
specified for all spring-loaded die cases:

1. Turn spring-loaded die controls to ‘On’.
2. Specify the compression direction – Spring-loaded dies only give a reaction
force in the compression direction.
3. Stiffness – This is specifies the stiffness in klb/in (English) or N/mm (SI) units.
The stiffness can be either a constant or a function of compression amount.
4. Preload – This specifies the amount of force to overcome before compression
occurs in klb (English) or N (SI).

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5. Maximum displacement – This is the distance where the spring eventually
bottoms out and which cause the spring to not move anymore in the compression
direction.
6. Other end of spring – This determines whether the spring is fixed to another
rigid object or whether the other end is fixed to a position in space. In the case
where the object is fixed to a position in space, the compression direction, the
current displacement and maximum displacement determine how much the
spring is compressed and whether it is bottomed out. In the case where the
spring is attached to another object, the distance between the two objects will
determine the amount of compression.

Figure 77: Sliding-loaded die specification

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Figure 78: Movement controls (rotational movement).

Rotational movement
Rotational movement is defined by an angular velocity about a fixed center of
rotation (See Figure 78). This movement type causes only rotation. Unless
otherwise specified, translation is constrained. The rotational speed is controlled
through the Controlling Method option and the point at which the object is rotated
about is set through the Center of Rotational Movement.
Rotational Motion can be applied to simulate rolling or any type of movement
where an object will rotate about a fixed axis. Rotational Motion can only be
applied to Rigid objects. Rigid objects can have both Rotational and Translational
movement simultaneously.

1. Controlling Method The objects rotation can be controlled by an Angular
Velocity or a Torque. Select the required control and enter the value for the
rotation just below.
Torque The Torque movement type will apply a rotational motion about the
defined axis at a specified torque. The torque can be specified as a constant or
as a function of time or angle.
Angular Velocity Angular Velocity will apply rotational motion about the defined
axis at a specified angular velocity in radians per second. The angular velocity
can be specified as a constant or as a function of time or angle.
NOTE: Idle rolls can be defined by specifying torque control with a very low
torque value

2. Axis of Rotation is specified by a vector originating at the point center and
through the point direction. Rotation direction is defined by the right hand rule.
That is, positive rotation is clockwise as viewed from the center point looking
towards the direction point.

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Movement control user subroutines
Complex die movement can be defined using user defined FORTRAN
subroutines. Please refer to later in the manual for a description of how to
implement user defined subroutines.

Figure 79: Object advanced properties.

2.4.13. Object node variables
The nodes window displays all available information about nodes. This window
can be reached through the object->advanced properties window (See Figure 79)
by clicking the Node Data button (See Figure 80). All information can be
modified, and many of the variables can be plotted.

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Figure 80: Node data window (deformation data).

Features of the display window include:
Node number
The number of the node for which information is being displayed. A node may
be selected either by keying in the value or by using the select icon and
mouse-picking a node.
Show node numbers
Toggles graphic display of all node numbers
Initialize values

Initialize the specified variable value on all nodes in the object.
Plot variable

Produces contour or vector plot of selected node variables
Line contour / Shaded contour
The plot type can be selected at the top toolbar.

Node Coordinate
The coordinates of the node are displayed. The values can be modified to slightly
adjust the position of nodes where boundary conditions were not properly
enforced. This should be done with EXTREME caution. For features such as

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boundary extraction and mesh generation, the database must be saved, and the
newly saved step read into the preprocessor before the adjusted coordinates can
be used.

Deformation

Displacement (DRZ)
Displacement stores the displacement of each node since the last remesh. For
elastic objects, a displacement may be specified for interference fits. The elastic
recover of the object will cause the appropriate stress values to be developed.

Velocity (URZ)
URZ is the X, Y, and Z velocity components of each node.

Force (FRZ)
FRZ specifies the value of the constant nodal force at individual nodes.

Pressure (PRZ)
PRZ maintains a specified normal pressure or shear traction across the face of
the elements lying between the selected boundary nodes.

Boundary condition code (BCCDEF)
BCCDEF specifies the deformation boundary condition in X, Y, and Z.
The code values are:
0
Node force specified
1
X, Y, or Z component of node velocity constrained, corresponding to the X, Y,
or Z component of BCCDEF
2
Constrained node tractions specified by PRZ
3
Node movement control defined
-n
Node is in contact with object number N. Note: There is no significance to the
X, Y, or Z component of contact. Contact values are stored in the first free
component, starting with Z, then Y, then X.

Boundary condition functions (BCCDFN)
BCCDFN specifies if the value of a deformation boundary constraint (nodal
velocity, force, or traction) associated with a particular node is to be specified as
a constant or as a set of time/nodal value data.

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Figure 81: Node data window (thermal data).
Thermal

Temperature (NDTMP)
NDTMP specifies the nodal temperature to be applied to individual nodes.

Heat (NDHEAT)
NDHEAT specifies the nodal heat to be applied to individual nodes.

Heat flux (NDFLUX)
NDFLUX specifies the distributed nodal heat flux to be applied to individual
nodes. The heat flux constraint will be applied to the element faces lying between
the selected boundary nodes.

Boundary condition code (BCCTMP)
BCCTMP specifies the heat transfer boundary constraint code for individual
nodes.
1
Constant nodal temperature is specified
2
Heat transfer with environment boundary condition
3
Specified nodal heat flux

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Boundary condition function (BCCTFN)
BCCFNC is used to specify time/nodal value pairs for nodal boundary
constraints. Types of nodal boundary constraints that can be specified as
time/nodal value pairs include velocity, force, traction, temperature, heat, and
distributed heat flux. BCCFNC can only be used when a node's boundary
constraint function type, BCCDFN or BCCTFN, has been specified as a
time/nodal value type. Diffusion

Figure 82: Node data window (diffusion data).

Diffusion [DIF]

Dominant atom content (DATOM)
DATOM specifies atom content at a node.

Atom flux (CRBFLX)
CRBFLX specifies "carbon flux" or atom flux for the surface of a work piece.

Boundary condition code (BCCCRB)
BCCCRB specifies the atom transfer boundary constraint code for individual
nodes.

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Figure 83: Node data window (Elec. Heating).

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Figure 84: Node data window (user-defined data).

User variables

User node variables (USRNOD)
User node variable values can be defined using FORTRAN subroutines. Refer to
a later section for more information on the subroutines. Each node value may
accept both a name and a value. Also, an infinite number of variables may be
defined. A minimum of 2 user node variables will be defined by default, however,
the user may increase this to as large number as wished. The only caveat is a
large number of variables defined can lead to a large database file. The user
specified nodal variables can be viewed, initialized, modified, or tracked.

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Figure 85: Element data window (deformation data).

2.4.14. Object element variables

Connectivity (ELCON)
The element connectivity specifies the numbers of the 4 or 8 nodes which define
the corners of the element.

Deformation

Material group (MTLGRP)
MTLGRP specifies the material number associated with each element.

Relative density (DENSTY)
DENSTY specifies the relative density of the material at each element. DENSTY
is used when a porous material with relative densities less than 1.0 is being
simulated. If no value is specified for density, it is assumed to be 1.0. The flow
stress of porous objects should be specified for the fully dense material.

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Effective strain (STRAIN)
STRAIN specifies the value of total effective strain at the centroid of each
element. Elemental strains are interpolated between meshes during remeshing
procedures.

Damage (DAMAGE)
DAMAGE specifies the damage factor at each element. The damage factor can
be used to predict fracture in cold forming operations. The damage factor
increases as a material is deformed. Fracture occurs when the damage factor
has reached its critical value. The critical value of the damage factor must be
determined through physical experimentation. Damage factor, Df, is defined by

where is the tensile maximum principal stress, is the effective stress, and
is the effective strain increment.

Stress components (STRESS)
Defines the stress tensors of each element of an object. The values as displayed
are , , , , , .

Yield surface translation tensor (YLDS) [MIC]
YLDS specifies the yield surface translation tensor for kinematic hardening.

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Figure 86: Element data window (hardness data).

Hardness [MIC]

Hardness (HDNOBJ)
HDNOBJ1 specifies hardness and HDNOBJ2 cooling time from high temperature
to low temperature for each element.

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Figure 87: Element data window (transformation data).

Transformation [MIC]

Current volume fraction (VOLFC)
VOLFC specifies the initial volume fraction of a phase (material) in an element at
the beginning of a simulation. In addition, throughout the simulation, VOLFC
stores the volume fraction of all phases in each element per step. The volume
fraction is determined from the keyword TTTD, which specifies the model or data
used in calculating the volume fraction of each phase. It is important that the user
specifies the necessary input for the keyword TTTD or else the volume fraction
(VOLFC) will not be calculated for the object. The user must input the type of
diffusion model and at least two Time-Temperature curves, the beginning of the
transformation and the end of the transformation.

Starting volume fraction (VOLFS)
VOLFS specifies the volume fraction limit of a phase in an element of an object.
VOLFS is only stored in the database at the beginning of a new phase

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transformation, ex. Austenite -> Pearlite or Austenite -> Martensite. The intent of
VOLFS is to assure that the volume fraction amount transformed from Austenite -
> Pearlite does not exceed the volume fraction of Austenite prior to
transformation. It should be noted that VOLFC is different than VOLFS in that
VOLFC stores the volume fraction of the phases every step. Typically, the user
will only be concerned with inputting volume fractions for VOLFS at the beginning
of the simulation.

Incubation time (TICF)
TICF (consumption of incubation time) specifies the fraction of time that has
occurred before the transformation has started. It is calculated for diffusion type
transformation as follows:
TICF = where is the time increment and is the incubation time at temperature
.The variable total is temperature dependent. If TICF reaches, the transformation
starts.

Volume fraction change (DVOLF)
DVOLF specifies the change in volume fraction of all the different phases that
resulted from the transformation during each time step. DVOLF of each phase is
initially set to zero in a simulation. DVOLF is determined by for each step where f
is the volume fraction of a particular phase. DVOLF is used in calculating the
latent heat due to transformation and the change in volume of the object. DVOLF
can be invaluable in determining the progress of a transformation and aid the
user in deciding whether to increase or decrease the time step for a particular
transformation.

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Figure 88: Element data window (Electrical heating data).

144

Figure 89: Element data window (grain data).

Grain size (GRAIN)
Current this is not implemented

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Figure 90: Element data window (user element data).

User element variables (USRELM)
User element variable values can be defined using FORTRAN subroutines. Refer
to a later section for more information on the subroutines. Each element value
may accept both a name and a value. Also, an infinite number of variables may
be defined. A minimum of 2 user element variables will be defined by default,
however, the user may increase this to as large number as wished. The only
caveat is a large number of variables defined can lead to a large database file.
The user specified nodal variables can be viewed, initialized, modified, or point
tracked.

2.4.15. Boolean Operation

This capability allows the user to subtract volume from the mesh of an object
from the geometry of another object. At this time, only subtraction is available
and the item to be subtracted from must be a meshed object and the item
performing the subtraction must be a geometry.

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Definitions:

Meshed object: An object with a solid mesh giving the object a volume
definition.

Geometry object: An object with a surface definition only.

Note that some objects can have both definitions such as a rigid object with
thermal calculations turned on. The geometry is used for deformation
calculations and the mesh is used for thermal calculations. In the case of a
plastic, elastic, porous or elasto-plastic object, the geometry is only used for
meshing purposes and is not used for simulation calculations.

The Boolean operation dialog is available through the advanced dialog and the
object to be subtracted from should be selected and the Advanced->Boolean
Operation button should be selected. After this, the following dialog should be
seen. There are two ways in which to perform this Boolean calculation:

a. Boolean with respect to another object – the user should pick the object to
Boolean from. After this please click Apply.

b. Boolean with respect to a plane that can be defined - the user should pick the
Plane and then define a point and a normal to Boolean from the object. After this
please click Apply.

Figure 91: Boolean Operation Dialog

Note: In some rare cases where the Boolean definition corresponds exactly to
the node locations, some nodes can cross the Boolean plane you have defined.
In this case, slightly tweaking the position of the plane will solve this (as little as

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1e-6 inches or mm).

What to do after Boolean operation

The cut planes will show a poorly structured mesh. This is because many
elements were cut. To improve the mesh quality perform the following actions:

1. Press Ok when the Boolean operation is satisfactory.
2. Go to Geometry
3. Extract the mesh (The purpose is to prevent any geometry definition from
being used for the meshing)
4. Go to mesh and mesh the object (Do not perform a manual remesh).
5. Go to Advanced->Data Interpolation to restore the state variables.

After this, you should have successfully updated your part with the desired
volume removed.

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Figure 92: Inter-object window.

2.5. Inter Object Definition
The purpose of inter object relations is to define how the different objects in a
simulation interact with each other. The relations table shows the current inter
object relations that have been defined. All objects which may come in contact
each other through the course of the simulation must have a contact relation
defined. This includes an object having a relationship to itself if self-contact
occurs. It is very important to define these relationships correctly for a simulation
to model a forming process accurately. The critical variables to be defined
between contacting objects are:
 Friction factor
 Interface heat transfer coefficient
 Contact relation
 Separation criterion
The inter object controls also contain object positioning controls and inter object
boundary condition generation.

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Figure 93: Inter-object window (deformation settings).

2.5.1. Inter object Interface
The inter object interface defines what objects can contact each other, and how
contacting objects will behave while in contact. Contact relations, inter object
boundary conditions, friction and heat transfer relations are set here for each
object pair. (See Figure 92).

Contact relation (CNTACT)
The contact relation parameter is used to set the Master/Slave relationship
between work piece, dies, and deformable bodies. The Slave object should be
the softer of the two materials and should also have the finer mesh. In the case
of two objects consisting of the same material, either can be the slave although
the object expected to elastically deform the most should be defined as the slave.
Setting a ``No Contact'' relation causes the objects to be invisible to each other
and allows them to pass through each other uninhibited.
CNTACT should be specified between every pair of deformable objects that may
contact each other during the simulation, and between deformable objects and
tools which they may contact.
Note: When a node from one deformable object contacts the surface of another
deformable object, a relationship between the two objects must be established to
keep the objects from penetrating each other. This relationship is referred to as a
master-slave or slave-master relationship. When two objects are contacting each
other, the contact nodes move on the master surface as long as the two objects
are in contact. The slave nodes are considered to be in contact with the master
object as long as the nodal forces indicate a compressive state. When a slave

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node develops a tensile force larger than the value specified in SEPRES, the
node is allowed to separated from the master object.

Friction (FRCFAC)

The friction coefficient specifies the friction at the interface between two objects.
The friction coefficient may be specified as a constant, a function of time, or a
function of interface pressure. The friction types allowed are shear and coulomb
friction.

Shear (sticking)
Constant shear friction is used mostly for bulk-forming simulations. The frictional
force in the constant shear model is defined by

fs = m k (7.1)

where fs is the frictional stress, k is the shear yield stress and m is the friction
factor. This states that the friction is a function of the yield stress of the deforming
body.

Coulomb
Coulomb friction is used when contact occurs between two elastically deforming
objects (could include an elastic-plastic object, if it is deforming elastically), or an
elastic object and a rigid object; generally to model sheet forming processes. The
frictional force in the Coulomb law model is defined by

where fs is the frictional stress, p is the interface pressure between two bodies

and is the friction factor. There must be interfacial pressure between two
bodies for frictional force to be present. If two bodies contact each other,
however there is no force pressing the bodies together, there will be no resulting
friction.
For contact between two plastic or porous objects, the frictional stress is
calculated using the flow stress of the slave object.
Common Question: What is a good value for a friction coefficient?
Answer: The lubricant used on the tooling plays a large role in the amount of
friction that exists between the tooling and work piece. The friction in turn affects
the metal flow at contact surfaces.
Typical values (using constant shear only):

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(0.08-0.1) for cold forming processes
(0.2) for warm forming processes
(0.2 to 0.3) for lubricated hot forming processes
(0.7-0.9) for unlubricated surfaces
Most processes are not extremely sensitive to friction, and the typical values
listed above are perfectly adequate. For processes which are very sensitive to
lubrication conditions, friction values may be determined by experimentation.
Remarks: Two simple ways of gauging the sensitivity of the process to friction:

1. Would you expect significant variation in the part depending on whether
lubricant is applied well or applied poorly in production? If you would not, then the
typical friction values listed above should be adequate.

2. If you are still unsure, run two DEFORM simulations with, say, a 20 %
variation in friction conditions from the typical values. (For lubricated cold
forming, you might run one simulation at 0.08 and one simulation at 0.12).
Compare the results, such as load versus stroke or final geometry, particularly
the parameters you identified as critical. If there is substantial variation, more
careful study of friction is warranted. If there is little variation, then the typical
values are adequate.

Separation criteria (SEPRES)
The separation criteria defines how the nodes at the inter object interface will
behave when acted upon by a tensile force. Three ways of defining the
separation criteria exist. They are:

1. Default This setting will cause normal separation when the contacting node
experiences a tensile force or pressure greater than 0.1

2. Flow stress This setting will cause nodal separation when the tension on the
contact node is greater than a given percentage of flow stress of the slave object.
This percentage must be input by the user in the Separation Criteria box.

3. Absolute pressure This setting will cause nodal separation when the tension
experienced by the node is greater than the input pressure. This pressure must
be indicated in the box marked separation criteria.

Separation Relation (SEPCRI)
The Separation Relation allows nodal contact to be defined as non-separable
under any condition. This condition should generally only be used to attach
nodes to a rigid symmetry plane when defining symmetry on a plane other than
the XY, YZ, or ZX planes

Self Contact

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Self-contact boundary condition is available in DEFORM-3D starting at version
5.1. This capability is under continuous improvement and it is recommended to
use the latest release version for this capability.

Figure 94: Inter-object window (thermal settings).

Note: In the case of rotational symmetry of a tetrahedral, rigid-plastic
mesh, do not define self-contact under inter-object boundary conditions.
In any other case of rotational symmetry, self-contact should be defined.

Interface heat transfer coefficient (IHTCOF)
The interface heat transfer coefficient specifies the coefficient of heat transfer
between two objects in contact. This can be specified as a constant or a function
of time or interface pressure. The interface heat transfer coefficient is generally a
complex function determined by the interface pressure, amount of sliding, and
interface temperature. If this data is available, it can be entered as a table.
If no data is available, values of 0.004 (English) or 11 (SI) should give reasonable
results.

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Figure 95: Inter-object window (tool wear settings).

Tool Wear

There are two predefined models for predicting wear: Archard’s model and Usui’s
model. There is also a capability for the user to define an arbitrary wear model
using user subroutines. (See Figure 95).

Wear models can be defined for each pair of objects that come into contact
during the process. They are defined under Inter-Object Data. Wear rates are
computed for the master object, and that object must have a mesh (therefore
heat transfer calculations must be activated under Simulation Controls).

In the Post Processor, the user can evaluate the total (integrated) wear depth up
to a specified step for the process as well as the incremental wear depth for the
time interval of the last step. Additionally the user can obtain the sliding
velocities, contact pressure and interface temperatures at the contacting die
surface in the Post Processor.

Models

Archard's model is generally better suited for discrete processes such as cold or
hot forging. In these cases, abrasive wear is the dominant wear mode.

Usui's model is generally better for continuous processes such as metal cutting,
where diffusion is a major contributor to wear.

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Typically the coefficients used for these models should come from a series of
calibration experiments. In lieu of calibrated data, standard values can be used
to obtain relative wear rates for similar processes. Proper techniques for the
modeling of coatings and surface treatments (such as nitriding) is still a topic of
very active research. Therefore, comparison of the effects of different surface
treatments is difficult without additional data. Contact DEFORM support for
assistance in finding the latest research in this area. Nonetheless, the following
guidelines can be offered:

For Archard’s model, the following coefficients will give reasonable results for
common tool steels:
A=1
B=1
C=2
K = 50
Hardness must be specified in the Advanced->Element Data section of the Pre
Processor. If the K=50 value is used, then hardness values should be entered
using the Rockwell C hardness scale.

For Usui’s model, typical values for machining processes are
A = 1.0E-5 (or interface sliding velocity * interface pressure)-1
B = 1000 (order of magnitude of absolute interface temperature)

It should be noted that these values are for qualitative comparison of similar
processes only, and will not give quantitative estimates of actual tool life.

In order to use tool wear, the following conditions must be met:

1. Thermal calculations must be turned on.
2. The tool should be meshed.
3. The tool should have a hardness value defined under Advanced->Elements
Data->Hardness.
4. The tool wear model should be turned on for the inter-object combination in
question and non-zero values should be placed for the coefficients.

Friction Window

Starting with version 6.0, friction windows can now be applied to a simulation as
seen in Figure 96. One of the purposes of this function is to allow the user to
apply different friction conditions at specified regions of an object to simulate
differences in the lubrication condition. Applying a window is done in the same
manner as only other window function. In the case of two overlapping windows,
the lower order number window takes precedence.

155

Figure 96: Friction Windows Dialog.

2.5.2. Positioning

Figure 97: Positioning window.

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Mouse driven positioning
Mouse driven positioning is used to move or rotate the object by allowing the
user to select a vector along which to drag or spin any specified object along or
about that vector.

Drop positioning
Drop positioning is used to move an object towards another object by
interference or by gravity (See Figure 98).

Figure 98: Drop positioning example.

Gravity activated
In the case of gravity activated, the positioned object should be the meshed
object. The direction should be the direction that gravity would drive it to fall on
the other object. The object can move in 6 degrees of freedom (3 directions of
translation and 3 axes of rotation) without any given constraint. Constraint in
rotational direction can be added if only one rotational degree of freedom is
required. If only one rotational direction is required, the Allow rotation only about
box should be selected and the vector about which to rotate should be specified.

Gravity not activated
In the case where gravity is not activated, this behaves exactly like the
interference positioning method.

Offset positioning
Offset positioning is used to move the object to position by a given displacement
in the chosen direction. The object to be positioned should be highlighted in the
object list table. The displacement in the X, Y, and Z coordinates should be
entered in the appropriate fields.

157

Interference positioning
Interference positioning moves the object to be positioned in the direction
indicated until there is a slight overlapping with the reference object. The overlap
is indicated by the percentage volume overlap value. During the positioning
process, the object being positioned is first moved a large distance away from
the reference object, then moved back towards the reference object in the in the
indicated direction, until first contact is made.

Common Question: What is a reasonable value of Interference?
Answer: Interference should be adjusted such that when inter-object boundary
conditions are generated, a reasonable number of nodes are in contact with
tools. Contact nodes should be generated wherever the object should reasonably
be touching the tools. This may require increasing or decreasing both the
interference value and the contact node generation tolerance.

Rotation positioning
Rotation positioning allows the user to rotate any object about a specified axis.
The axis of rotation is specified from a point and a direction vector. The specified
rotation angle is positive for a right hand rotation about the axis.

Advanced positioning
This method of positioning will most likely not be supported in future versions.

2.5.3. Inter object boundary conditions

Inter object boundary conditions identify nodes of a slave object that are in
contact with a master surface. Contact conditions are automatically updated by
DEFORM, but it is necessary to define initial contact conditions to assist with the
initial solution step. When inter object boundary conditions are generated,
DEFORM checks a tolerance band (defined by the tolerance distance) around all
master surfaces. Any nodes falling within this tolerance band are considered to
be in contact with the surface, and their position is adjusted (if necessary) so they
are on the surface of the master object.
The tolerance distance should generally be set to about 10% of the edge length
of the smallest element in the slave object.
If a node is inside the object by a distance greater than the tolerance band,
contact will not be generated on this node, and it may continue to penetrate the
object during deformation. Colored marks should appear on each contact node. If
no contact is generated, it may be necessary to reposition the object using
interference positioning, with either a larger or smaller interference band.
Note: If master object geometry is improperly defined with surface normals
inward, the behavior of boundary contact generation will be unpredictable

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2.6. Database Generation
The simulation data set entered into the preprocessor can be written as a new
database, or appended to an existing database file. The information will be
written as a negative step, indicating that it was written from the pre-processor
and not the simulation engine. In an existing database, any steps higher than the
current step will be overwritten at this time.
The simulation database will be checked as it is written.

Figure 99: Database generation dialog.

Data errors
Errors are serious problems with the data set that will prevent the simulation from
running. These errors are marked with red flags in data checking and must be
resolved before the database can be written.

Data warnings
Warnings are conditions which may cause undesirable solution behavior but will
not prevent the simulation from running. Warnings are marked with yellow flags.
If warnings exist, each one should be carefully checked and the source identified.
Some warnings represent unusual, but valid, data situations. If this is the case,

159

they can be ignored and the simulation can be run.

160

Chapter 3. Running Simulations

Figure 100: Main window.

3.1. Simulation Options

By clicking the Run (Options) button, the following selections are available for
running a simulation. The Multi-Processing, simulation graphics and e-mailing is
discussed individually below. The last two options are:

Keep the message file – This prevents the message file from being lost after
each remesh by renaming it to a unique name for each simulation run.

No automatic remeshing (for nonconvergence) – This prevents the simulation
from restarting with a automatic remesh if the simulation stops due to
convergence problems.

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Figure 101: Simulation Options

3.2. MultiProcessing
This radio box activates whether the Multiple Processing functionality is activated
or not. By clicking on the button next to the Multiple Processors Selection, the
user will see the Multiple Processor Set Up window. This allows the user to
specify the computers used to solve the problem as well as the number of
processors used on each computer. It is very important the care is performed in
this in that incorrect specification will cause the simulation not to run.

Figure 102: Multiple Processor Set Up window.

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3.3. Email the Result
This function allows DEFORM to send an e-mail notification of the completion of
a simulation. If Yes is selected, the e-mail address to send to is required as well
as the name of the company SMTP mail server.
3.4. Starting the simulation
The simulation is started by clicking the Simulation, Start button. This initiates a
series of operations to run the simulation and generate new meshes as
necessary.
Run-time information will be written to the ProblemId.MSG and ProblemId.LOG
files.
 Execution information, including convergence information for each step
and simulation error messages, can be found in the .MSG file.
 Information on simulation and remeshing, execution times, and fatal errors
can be found in the .LOG file or in the command window where DEFORM
was executed from.
3.5. Simulation graphics
This function is now available in DEFORM-3D as seen in Figure 103. While the
simulation is running, the second most recent saved step can be viewed. Many
different variables can be viewed such as plastic strain, plastic strain rate,
temperature and many more.

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Figure 103: The simulation graphics window.

There are also three additional ways in which to monitor a simulation.
1. Use the Process Monitor to determine the current step number.
2. Read the message file to determine the current step number and iteration
information.
3. Open the simulation in the Post-Processor. During a simulation the database
file is renamed to FOR003 and is renamed back to the original database file
name upon remeshing and stopping.
3.6. Add to Queue (Batch Queue)
This will allow the simulation specified in the simulation window to be added to
the DEFORM queuing system which will run multiple jobs in a consecutive
manner. Once the simulations are added to the batch, they are listed
consecutively in the Batch Queue window (see below). The Batch Queue
window, accessed from the main DEFORM window, orders the jobs in the queue
and lists the problem names and the paths.
From the Batch Queue window, the queue can be submitted and modified. Once
a problem is finished, it is removed from the Batch Queue list and the next job in
the batch can be submitted by pressing the Submit Queue button..

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Figure 104: Batch queue window.

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3.7 Process Monitor

Figure 105: Process monitor.

The process monitor displays the status of any simulations running on the CPU.
The process will displayed while remeshing is occurring as a different module
(either DEF_AMG or other such processes). The Process Monitor reads the
DEFORM status file to determine what simulations are running and what
simulations are stopped. If this file gets corrupted in any way, the process
monitor may have problems. In order to remedy this problem, the user needs to
recreate the status file. This can be done by running the INSTALL2D script for 2D
and the INSTALL3D script for 3D (Unix only). In the case of Windows, this can
be regenerated by running the program GENARM.EXE in the installation
directory of DEFORM-3D.

Abort

This will stop a simulation at the next converged step. This may take a few
minutes to stop the simulation.

Abort Immediately

This will stop a simulation instantly. Any calculations at the current step will
be lost.

Abort All

This will stop all simulations listed at the next converged step. This may take
a few minutes to stop the simulations

3.8. Stopping a simulation
A simulation may be stopped using the "Abort" or "Abort immediately" buttons in

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the process monitor. The simulation will be stopped after the current step is
completed.

Killing a simulation process
Since the Abort/Stop command will only stop a simulation after the current step is
completed, substantial time may be required for the simulation to stop. To kill a
simulation immediately, the process DEF_SIM.EXE must be killed directly from
the operating system.

3.9. Troubleshooting problems
The message file is an iteration by iteration account of the simulation. It shows
how close each iteration is to converging to the final solution by calculating a
relative error norm between successive steps for both nodal velocities and nodal
forces. There is also information given on node contact being generated and also
if there is a sudden stop. The log file is an account of the module execution

3.9.1. Message file messages
If a simulation stops early, it is recommended to check the end of the message
file to see why the simulation stopped. While a simulation is run under the batch
mode of operation, there are three places in which the end of operation may be
indicated. The message file is where the simulation will indicate a normal
stoppage of the FEM module. If there is an abnormal stoppage in simulation, due
to an illegal operation in the FEM module or in the mesh generation, this will be
indicated in either the .LOG file or in the command window where DEFORM was
intially called. This may be also accompanied by a core file which should be
deleted as soon as possible since they often consume a large amount of disk
space.

3.9.2. Simulation aborted by user
When DEFORM is installed, the permission for the status file (which monitors
simulations running on the machine) should be set using the command 'chmod
777 DEFORM.STA'. If this is not done, the FEM engine cannot write to the status
file and hence exits. To restart the simulation, first go to the DEFORM3_DIR, run
INSTALL3D and select the option to regenerate the status file.
Note: If the user gets the message Command not found, the user should run the
INSTALL3D by typing ./INSTALL3D. This will force the operating system to
override the paths and force the system to run only the file in the current
directory.

3.9.3. Cannot remesh at a negative step
The FEM engine prints this message and exits when a remeshing has just taken
place and in the current step a negative Jacobian is encountered so remeshing

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has to take place again. This simulation normally arises when remeshing has
failed to produce a valid mesh. Stopping the simulation prevents the DEFORM
system from encountering a never ending loop.
The reasons for this could be that the time step (DSMAX, DTMAX) may be large
as might happen in extrusions where the ram speed might be low but the velocity
of the extrudate might be very high causing severe mesh distortion near the die
radius. Another example would be in a forging when material starts to flash and
the elements near the flash region get severely distorted. To avoid this problem,
the time step can be reduced, the number of mesh elements can be increased or
the mesh density in the area where distortion occurs can be increased. Plotting
the node velocities in the Preprocessor can be helpful. It is not recommended for
the displacement of the nodes each time step be larger than the edge length of
the elements. Polygon edge length sub stepping can be useful in this case.

3.9.4. Remeshing is highly recommended
Remeshing is Highly Recommended because of Unbalanced Mismatch between
Master and Slave is a message that occurs when the size of the elements on the
slave and master surface are not proper. When specifying master-slave
relationships between objects the following rules should be adhered to:
 the slave is the softer material
 the slave should have a finer/denser mesh than the master
This mesh is very important in the region where the slave and master contact
each other. If the mesh on the master is much denser than the slave's mesh in a
region where they contact the results of the simulation will not be accurate. If the
ratio of the number of elements on the contact surface between the master and
slave is greater than 3:1 then the message 'Remeshing is highly recommended
because of unbalanced mismatch between master and slave' is printed as a
warning in the message file. This will reduce the accuracy of the solution and
steps should be taken by the user to change the mesh densities on the objects.

3.9.5. Program Stopped: Negative Jacobian at El. ...
DEFORM uses the finite element method to solve problems of large deformation
and AMG (Automatic Mesh Generator) to automatically provide an optimized
remeshing capability. In most cases, the meshing and remeshing runs very
smoothly. There are cases though, where a simulation will not continue due to a
negative Jacobian (unacceptable mesh) at a step immediately after a remeshing
operation. In most cases, these can be easily identified from one of the following
areas:
 A closed forging lap will usually lead to this problem. Look at your
progressions carefully and see is there is a small area where a lap has
formed and closed. If such a lap is detected and you would like to continue
the simulation, you may try to
Using the Surface Patch feature in the Preprocessor under Objects
Geometry can be useful. Folds will appear as short red lines that do not

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appear to highlight a single element. Be sure to view the object from
multiple angles before deciding that a red mark is a fold, because
surface patches from the far side of the object can be misleading.
Modify the geometry to remove the lap, and continue the simulation. This
will require remeshing and interpolation to maintain the strain,
temperature and damage history
 If, for any reason, a node has penetrated one of the dies, the remeshing
will become problematic. This can be evaluated by looking at the FEM
MESH of all objects at the step just prior to remeshing. A node that is
inside the die surface will move back to the die surface after remeshing
and interpolation of boundary conditions, but an element that had an
acceptable geometry can be highly distorted during this process.
 If the user sets a problem with very large time steps, and little to no sub
stepping criteria, this can lead to a problem resulting from a mesh
distorting severely during the first step. Refer to time step definition criteria
in the preprocessor section of this manual.
 If sub stepping is disabled in a 3D simulation, great care must be taken to
use sufficiently small time steps. This means that any time a node
displacement calculates a node position inside a rigid object; the node is
pushed back to the die surface. This is not a bad assumption if the node
displacements are small; however, if the node displacements are large
this assumption may lose its validity.
These suggestions are intended as general guidelines and may not solve all of
this class of problem. If all of these areas have been investigated and
subsequent attempts to run your problem fail, we would recommend sending us
a keyword file for further investigation.

3.9.6. Solution does not converge
There are several common reasons for a solution not converging.
1.
The material has a large rigid body motion. Much of the deforming body has
a very low strain rate or is rigid.
2.
The material is not strain rate sensitive.
3.
Elasto-plastic material is undergoing large deformation or has an
inappropriate initial guess.
In cases where a problem will not converge, the following checklist should help
with the troubleshooting process. This will help with the most common cases.
 Increase your Force Norm or Velocity Norm up to one order of magnitude.
The Force Norm may in fact be raised as high as .1 or even eliminated for
a few steps. This should not lead to significant error, but could result in
reduced accuracy of load calculations. If convergence is improved, allow
the simulation to run for 3 or 4 steps, then try reducing the settings to their
original values.

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 If the simulation is being run with principal die movement under load or
energy control, run a couple of steps under speed control to allow the
solution to stabilize before continuing under the original mode.
 Increase your limiting strain rate to 1/50 or 1/100 of the average strain
rate. This should not cause any significant effect on solution accuracy. If
you have an extremely difficult case to converge, this value may be
lowered to 1/10 of the average strain rate for a few steps, then reset to a
more normal value. Over the years, we have recommended that the
limiting strain rate should be 1/100 to 1/1000 of the average strain rate. If
this value is set too low, it will result in an artificially lower load calculation.
 Check your material data versus your process conditions to insure that no
"strange" material properties are being passed to the FEM engine. Be
particularly aware of extrapolation issues. For example, if your process
conditions are in an area that is outside of the defined flow stress region,
this "reverse strain rate sensitivity" create a problem that is almost
impossible to allow DEFORM to converge on an accurate solution. This
may be handled by re-evaluating your raw data and adjusting it as
required. Since it is highly unlikely that a material has a lower flow stress
at a higher strain rate, the common cause for this type of data is the lack
of an adiabatic heating correction. In other words, adiabatic heating at the
higher strain rates artificially heated and softened the material causing an
apparently lower flow stress. If no clear cause can be determined, find
data that does not exhibit this reverse strain rate sensitivity.
 Lower your penalty constant of plastic objects to 250,000 to 500,000 using
a constant value (PENVOL). This may lead to volume loss if the value is
much lower than 100,000 for typical engineering materials.
 Reduce your time step. This advice applies particularly for elastic-plastic
materials. A very small time step can frequently allow the DEFORM
system to get through a tough region of convergence. After a large
number of nodes are in contact with dies and the simulation is in progress,
a larger time step can be resumed. This may be accomplished through
either controlling the time step or a control modifier that will lead to sub
stepping such as DEMAX.
 Change the initial guess calculation method. Refer to Object Properties
for a discussion of EP Initial Guess.
 In the case of cold materials that exhibit little to no strain rate sensitivity,
this is one of the hardest cases to gain convergence. In fact there should
be a very slight strain rate sensitivity even in the cold forging world. A user
may help with convergence by creating an artificial strain rate sensitivity.
This is not far from reality and may be done by adding a data set of flow
stress at a higher strain rate with slightly higher flow stress data. See
Figure 11.2 for an idea of how to handle this type of issue.
 In a few cases, convergence problems can be caused by a course mesh
in an area with high local deformation, such as under the corner of a
punch during a piercing operation. In these cases, generate a finer mesh
and set the remeshing criteria to have a higher bias towards boundary

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curvature and strain rate.

These suggestions are intended as general guidelines and may not solve all non-
convergence problems. Although DEFORM has excellent convergence behavior
for most problems, the occasional problem will occur where the user experiences
some difficulty. If all of these attempts fail, we would recommend sending us a
keyword file for further investigation.

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3.9.7. Stiffness matrix is non-positive definite
DEFORM uses the finite element method to solve problems of plastic
deformation, heat transfer and elastic deflection. When using this method, a
material stiffness matrix is defined by geometry and material properties. When
the user sees a message "non positive definite stiffness" or "zero pivot", this is
caused by a stiffness matrix that has a zero value. This problem is usually
caused by a material property having a zero value that is related to the "stiffness"
or resistance to flow, heat or deformation.
For a given type of simulation, there is a property that is most likely to lead to this
problem. It is as follows:
 Heat Transfer: Heat Capacity and/or Thermal Conductivity
 Elastic: Young's Modulus
 Plastic Deformation: Flow Stress
 Heat transfer problems can be identified by the information in the
message file. The iteration information will contain the heading
Temperature Error Norm in the section just prior to the problem being
terminated.
 Plastic deformation problems can be identified clearly by the information in
the message file. The iteration information will contain the headings Force
Error Norm and Velocity Error Norm in the section just prior to the problem
being terminated. These messages will also be seen during the elastic
(die stress) type of problem.

3.9.8. Zero pivot
Rigid body motion can lead to the "zero pivot" error. This leads to the velocity
norm increasing and a resulting simulation failure. This typically results from the
lack of adequate boundary conditions and can be resolved by properly defining
these. For a 2-D case, there are two possible geometric modes: Axisymmetric
and Plane Strain simulations. In the case of an axisymmetric simulation, only the
y-direction needs constraint. In the case of a plane strain simulation, both the x
and y directions need to be constrained for the meshed objects. For the case of
rigid objects, these do not need any constraint since they act more as boundary
conditions.

3.9.9. Extrapolation of data
Many of these problems are not the result of "bad data" or the user neglecting to
input the data properly. The problem has to do with a data set that does not
cover the process being modeled. This being the case, the available data is
extrapolated to the process window. In this case, the material needs to be
updated to include data in the actual process window or adjusted (best estimate)
to insure that values at or below zero can not occur when these critical properties
are included in the stiffness equations. See Figure 11.3 for a further description.

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These suggestions are intended as general guidelines and may not solve all of
this class of problem. If all of these areas have been investigated and
subsequent attempts to run your problem fail, we would recommend sending us
a keyword file for further investigation.

3.9.10. Bad Element Shape
This is a error created in the FEM engine which warns of dangerous distortion in
the mesh of a 3D simulation. The two main causes for this error is a negative
jacobian shape that cannot be resolved or a lack of flow stress values. In the
case of the negative jacobian, the problematic elements (along with the node
coordinates for the problem elements) will be listed in the file BUG.MSG. If every
element in the mesh is listed, the flow stress for the object was probably not
defined. If there are only a few elements listed, the user may try to load the bad
step into the Pre-Processor and check the shape of the elements and the
Boundary Condition code. The importance of well-defined boundary conditions
cannot be overemphasized. This includes meaningful contact conditions and
fixed velocity conditions.

3.9.11. Inconsistent Step Number
This implies that a while the simulation was started/restarted, the most recent
step in the database is not a negative step. In the case of DEFORM, a negative

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value on a step is simply a flag to indicate that a start/restart is possible. The
negative value says nothing algebraic as it is merely a flag. The cause of this
error can be any of the following:

 An already run simulation was submitted and needs to have a negative
step added to the end. Simply creating a negative step in the Pre-
Processor and submitting the simulation again can remedy this.
A simulation needed to be remeshed and a preprocessor could not generate a
negative step prior to restarting the simulation. If this occurs, please review the
simulation and make sure that no problems with boundary conditions occurred
prior to the failure. Also, check that there is plenty of disk space available and
that full write privileges are available in the directory of interest. If no reason can
be determined, please contact SFTC.

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Chapter 4: Post-Processor

With the new release of DEFORM-3D, we are proud to support OpenGL as an
option for the 3D graphics rendering in our Post-Processor. The approach will
enable the user to view the results with a much more attractive appearance.

Figure 106: DEFORM-3D Post-Processor.

4.1. Post-Processor Overview

The DEFORM post-processor is used to view and extract data from the
simulation results in the database file. All results steps which were saved by the
simulation engine are available in the post-processor. Information which is
available from the post-processor includes :
 Deformed geometry, including tool movements and deformed mesh at

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each saved step.
 Contour plots: Line or shaded contours display the distribution of any state
variables, including stress, strain, temperature, damage, and others.
 Vector plots: displacement and velocity vectors indicate magnitude and
direction of displacement or velocity for every node at each step
throughout the process.
 Graphs of key variables such as press loads, volumes, and point tracked
state variables.
 Point tracking to show how material moves and plots of state variables at
these points.
 Flow net showing material flow patterns on a uniform grid. Generally a
very good predictor of grain flow patterns in the finished part.
 State variables can be tracked between any two points and plotted in a
graph format. The state variables can either follow the boundary or
linearly between the points.
 A histogram plot of any state variable can be made to view the distribution
of any given state variable throughout a body.
State variable, geometry, and image data can also be extracted in a number of
neutral formats for use with other programs.

4.2 Graphical display

4.2.1. Window layout
The postprocessor has three windows: one to display information, one to
manipulate the view, and one to control the information that is displayed.

Display window
The display window is the main postprocessor window as seen in Figure 107.
It is the graphical display for all results information, including geometry and
meshes, contour and vector plots, and graphs.

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Figure 107: Display window.

Graphic Utilities
The graphics utilities window provides view manipulation and other utility
functions for the object window. Features include zoom, pan, and rotate,
measurement utilities, multiple viewport controls, printing, and animation
creation utilities. The graphics utilities window also contains step control
buttons to continuously play through the database, to single-step forward or
backward, or to jump to the beginning or end of the database.

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Figure 108: Icon toolbar.

Post-processor controls
The post-processor controls is used for selecting the specific data set to be
displayed in the postprocessor window, and for extracting solution data from the
database and writing it to text files.

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Figure 109: Display list and controls.

179

Figure 110: Display properties.

Right-mouse click menu

Clicking the right mouse button in the display window yields the window seen in
Figure 111.

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Figure 111: Right-mouse click window in post-processor.

Object Display Modes
DEFORM has 3 different object display modes as seen in Figure 112:
 Single Object mode – the selected object is displayed. All other objects are
hidden
 Multi Object mode – the selected object is displayed in solid color. All other
objects are transparent
 User Object mode – the user can set the display mode (on, transparent, or
off) for each object independently.

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Multi- User-
Object Defined

Single-
Object

Figure 112: Detail of Object Tree showing object mode selection icons

Tree levels and functions
The right mouse button menu has functions associated with each level of the
object tree. The object tree levels are shown in Figure 113.

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Problem
Data

Object
Data

Mesh
Data

Figure 113: Levels in the object tree. Use the right mouse button to select a context
appropriate menu.

The Problem Data menu contains the following commands:
 Turn on all objects
 Turn off all objects
 Turn on all work pieces - Turns on any object which is not rigid. Turns off all
rigid objects)
 Turn on all dies - Turns on any object which is rigid. Turns off all other
objects) Turn on transparency for all
 Turn off transparency for all
 Turn on backface for all - backface shows the interior or back surface of rigid
objects
 Turn off backface for all

The Object Data menu contains some or all of the following commands,
depending on object type:
 Turn on this only – turns on the selected object and turns off all other objects
 Turn off – turns off the selected object

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 Show contact node – highlights any nodes which are in contact with any
master object. This is a quick way to display contact. This is a toggle menu
selection. Select it once to turn the contact node display on. Select it again
to turn the display back off.
 Show BCC – highlights any node with constrained velocity boundary
conditions. This is also a toggle selection
 Show geometry normal vector – displays vectors normal to each surface
facet.
 Make transparent
 Show backface – backface shows the interior or back surface of rigid objects

The Material Data menu allows access to the material properties window (same
window as the preprocessor).

A meshed rigid object will contain both mesh data (for temperature calculations)
and rigid surface geometry data (for contact with deforming objects). The mesh
and geometry data menus allow control of the mesh and geometry surface
display.

The Mesh Data menu controls display of the object surface mesh description
 Show Mesh / Hide Mesh shows or hides the display of the object surface
mesh
 Change shade color – changes the element fill color
 Change line color – changes the color of the lines delineating element edges

The Geometry Data menu controls the display of the surface geometry
description
 Show Geometry / Hide Geometry shows or hides display of the surface
geometry
 Change shade color – changes the surface facet fill color
 Change line color – changes the color of lines delineating facet edges

Additional Post Processing Functions
When various post processing functions (state variables, load stroke curves,
slicing, etc) are displayed, the respective icons will be added to the object tree.
Right clicking on these icons allows editing of their respective properties

Object Control Bar
All right mouse menu functionality is duplicated in a control bar at the bottom of
the object tree.

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Object Mesh
Toggle Toggle

Geometry
Object
Toggle
Control Bar
Item
Toggle

Item
Toggle

Display Transparency
Nodes Toggle

Toggle object on/off (displays mesh, geometry, or both, depending on which
is available and selected. Defaults to mesh if neither is selected)
Toggle mesh on/off
Toggle geometry on/off
Toggle item on/off – may be any item, such as slicing, a curve or graph, etc.

Display contact nodes
Toggle transparency
Toggle backfacing

4.3. Post-Processing Summary
The post-processor controls window is divided into two sections. The top
sections consist of links to several sub-windows which access virtually all post-
processor data display and extraction functions. The bottom sections contain hot-

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link icons which display several of the most commonly used functions.

4.3.1. Simulation Summary
This is very similar to the old DEFORM™ simulation summary. The step can be
selected using the step list and then the object can be selected using the
up/down arrow buttons in the object field. The concept of Operation Number is
going to be added to DEFORM™-3D, until then all the operations have the
number 1. After changing the object, if the step changes, the object does not
change. The up/down arrow keys can be used to browse through the step list.

Figure 114: Simulation Summary Window

Certain characteristic data, such as press loads, principle die velocities, and

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maximum and minimum values of state variables are stored for every simulation
step, whether complete data is stored for that step or not. This summary data can
be viewed in the simulation summary window.

4.3.2. State Variable

To plot state variable plots, the variable and then the component of the variable
must be selected. Then the scaling type global (min/max of all objects for all
simulation steps), local (min/max of all objects for the particular step), and user-
defined (which defaults to the global values) must be selected. For user-defined,
the min/max values can be entered in the input fields provided to the right of the
window. Then the type of contour (line/shaded/vector) and the class of objects to
be plotted can be selected, and finally specific objects can be selected/omitted by
toggling them on/off in the object list. Clicking on the OK button plots the state
variable in the current viewport.

The following state variables can be plotted in the post-processor:

Analysis variables:
Minimum distance
Contact time
Folding angle

Tool Wear
Interface temperature
Sliding velocity
Interface pressure
Wear pressure (current)
Wear depth (total)

Deformation
Damage
Displacement (various components)
Strain (various components)
Strain rate (various components)
Stress (various components)
Velocity (various components)
Back stress (various components)
Normal pressure

Thermal
Temperature

Microstructure

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Volume fraction (various phase components)
Grain Model
Hardness (various calculations)

Diffusion
Dominant Atom
Heating
Voltage

Property
Material group

User
User nodal variables
User element variables
User variables

Figure 115: State Variable Plots Window.

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Plot Type

Line contour
Shows the state variable selected as a line contour plot.

Shaded contour
Shows the state variable selected as a shaded contour plot.

Solid contour
This is the same as a line contour plot with solid colors in between the
lines.

Elemental contour
This plot type colors each element a distinct color based on value at the
element without interpolating values between elements.

Iso-surface
This plot type shows only the surface of a particular value defined by the
slider bar on the bottom of the state variable window.

Vector plot
This plot type shows the variables as vectors with a color associated with
the value and a direction.

Deflection
This plot type will distort the object (elastic body only)

Histogram
See Figure 116 as an example.

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Figure 116: An example shaded contour plot with a histogram distribution.

Scaling

Local (current step)
There is a different minimum and maximum value for every step.

Global (all steps)
The same minimum and maximum value will be used for every step.

Global (user defined)
The same minimum and maximum value will be used for every step, which the
user can define.

Global (each step)
There is a different minimum and maximum value for every step, which the user
can define.

Object Limits

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The Object Limits allows the user to set different minimum and maximum
values for different objects. This is only activated for line contours.

Interpreting state variables
Damage
Damage generally relates to the likelihood of fracture in a part. The
specific definition of damage is dependent on the method of calculation
selected in the pre-processor. Damage is NOT a good indicator of
fracture in tooling. Stress components should be used for die failure
analysis.
Damage, particularly the Cockcroft-Latham damage model (the default
damage model in DEFORM) has been shown to be a good indicator of
certain types of tensile ductile fracture in cold parts (cracking due to
deformation by stretching, such as chevron or surface cracking in extrusions,
or cracking on the outside surface of an upset). It is not a good indicator of
fracture in compression (such as splits perpendicular to die motion due to
extreme heading reduction).
The damage value at which fracture initiates varies substantially from
material to material, and can even vary for a given material with different
annealing treatments. However, for a given material with a given annealing
treatment, critical damage value at fracture is reasonably repeatable.
Damage value can be used in two ways:
1.
Evaluating alternatives: In problem solving a job that is known to fracture, or
in analyzing a job where ductile fracture is known to be a risk. Several
alternatives can be analyzed in DEFORM. The alternative with the lowest
damage value is the best alternative for minimizing the likelihood of fracture.
2.
Comparing a design to a known critical value. Critical damage values can be
estimated from prior experience with a given material on a part that is known
to fracture. Running a DEFORM simulation of a process known to cause
stretch cracking in the part will give an upper bound value for damage.
Running a simulation on a part made of the same material that is known not
to crack will give a good lower bound value. The ideal part is a marginal
process, that is: one that cracks occasionally, but not on every part. If the
peak damage value from the DEFORM analysis corresponds with the
fracture site on the part, this will give a good estimate of the critical value.
Designs with a damage value 10% to 20% or more below this value should
be safe from fracture, if material and anneal conditions are the same.
Displacement
For small deformation problems only, plots the nodal displacement value. For
large deformation, the displacement since the last remesh will be plotted.
This variable is primarily intended for die deformation analysis.
Density

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For powder or porous materials, plots the relative density distribution.
Theoretical maximum limit is 1.0.
Strain
Strain is a measure of the degree of deformation in an object. A detailed
description of strain is available in any standard text on mechanics of
materials, metal forming analysis, or plasticity. A brief description of
nomenclature will be given here.
The measure of strain used in large deformation analysis, including DEFORM
is true strain, which differs slightly from the well known engineering strain
presented in typical engineering applications.
Engineering strain is defined as

which is a good approximation for small deformations, but loses accuracy
when deformations become large.
For large deformation analysis, it is better to use true strain, which is defined
as the sum of a large series of arbitrarily small strain increments. Integrating

this over the total change in length gives where is the true
strain, l0 is the initial length, and lf is the final length.
Extending this deformation into three dimensions, we can assume a cube
with initial dimensions x0, y0, and z0. Components of strain in the x, y and z

directions can be defined incrementally as , , and

where dx, dy, and dz are incremental deformations in the x, y, and
z directions.

Shearing components of strain can be defined incrementally as ,

, and where , , and are shear strains in
the xy, yz, and zx planes, respectively.
In a two dimensional analysis, the yz and zx components of shear strain are
assumed to be zero.
Through various mathematical techniques which are beyond the scope of this
discussion, it is possible to define so-called ``principal axes'' on which all
components of shear strain are zero. The strains measured along these axes
are termed ``principal strains.''
It is frequently useful to have a single characteristic strain value to describe
the degree of deformation. DEFORM uses a value common to metal forming
analysis known as the effective or Von-Mises strain

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where , , and are principal strains, and is the effective strain.
For porous materials, there is also a volumetric component of strain. This
change in volume relative to initial volume is stored as mean strain. For
elasto-plastic materials, the strain values stored are only the inelastic parts of
the total strain. Elastic parts are available through the specification in the
simulation controls window.
Strain Rate
Strain rate is a measure of the rate of deformation with respect to time. The
units are strain per second where strain is a dimensionless value. The
components of strain rate are defined in the same manner as the
components of strain.
Stress
Stress is defined as the force acting on a unit area of material. Assume a unit
cube of material. Forces (or stresses) acting on the faces of the cube can be
resolved into normal (perpendicular to the face) and shear (along the face).
Shear stresses can further be resolved into two components along arbitrary
orthogonal axes. Thus, the complete stress state can be defined by three
normal stress components , , and , and and six shear components
, , , , , and .
Through equilibrium conditions it may be shown that the components acting
in the same plane are equivalent. That is , , and
. Thus, the complete stress state can be represented by 3
normal components and 3 shear components.
As with strain, by mathematical analysis it is possible to orient three
orthogonal axes such that the shear component of the stress along these
axes is 0. The resultant normal stresses acting on these axes are termed
principal stresses.
DEFORM uses the von Mises stress to define the characteristic ``effective
stress''. The effective stress is defined as

where , , and are the principal stresses. For most metals, the
effective stress is indicative of the onset of plastic flow.
Velocity
The velocity option plots nodal velocity at each step. Vector plots display
magnitude and direction. Magnitude is indicated by vector length and color.
Contour plots display only magnitude, where contour color indicates velocity

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magnitude.
Normal Pressure
Normal pressure is the force per unit area on the surface of an object. This is
computed on the surface of slave objects. The range of values is from no
stress to compressive stress. Tension cannot be maintained without some
form of sticking applied between the surfaces.
Temperature
The temperature plot displays nodal temperature at each step.
Volume Fraction
If transformation calculations are performed, the volume fraction of the
selected phase component of a mixture material is displayed.
Grain Size
Grain size is not implemented in DEFORM release 3.0. It will be implemented
in a future release.
Hardness
Predicted hardness based on the hardness method selected in the pre-
processor will be displayed.
Dominant atom
The concentration of the dominant atom (usually carbon) in a diffusion
calculation is displayed.
User Variables
User defined nodal variables can be stored using user defined FORTRAN
subroutines. Refer to the section on user subroutines for more information.

4.3.3. Point tracking

In Point Tracking you can track 200 of points over the course of a simulation and
view how they compare with each other. First select the desired starting step
from the Start Step list in the Point Tracking window . Now select the object from
the object table. Once you have done this, click on the Define Material Points
button. You can now add the points that you wish to track in the Display window.

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Figure 117: Point tracking data window.

Adding Points
Points can be added to track by clicking in the intended location with the left
mouse button when this button is selected.

Deleting Points
Points can be deleted by clicking the third icon from the top in the Point tracking
data window (See Figure 117).

Figure 118: First window of point tracking wizard.

Point tracking can be performed in either the Cartesian coordinate system or in a
cylindrical coordinate system. The variables that can be shown in cylindrical

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format are the strain components, the stress components and the strain rate
components.

4.3.4. Load stroke curves

Figure 119: Load-stroke window.

The graphs window is used to generate load, speed, torque, angular velocity,
and volume vs. time (or stroke) plots for the object. Multiple plots can be
generated on the same graph. If time is used as the x-axis, then the graph can
be used for selecting steps. Clicking on a point on the graph will load the nearest
saved step from the database.
A note on volume plots: due to various factors, some volume loss is unavoidable
in FEM analysis. However, if volume loss exceeds more than about 1% of total
volume, this should be a cause for concern.
Causes of volume loss and their remedies include:
 Corner cutting during remeshing. This is characterized by large drops in
volume at remeshing steps. If elements around a relatively tight corner are

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too large, the portion of the element which penetrates the corner will be
lost on remeshing. This can be controlled forcing a finer mesh in that
region with mesh density windows, and by using the Maximum
Interference Depth remesh trigger.
 Excessive hydrostatic stress or too small a volume penalty constant. This
is characterized by a steep gradient in the volume curve between
remeshings. Check that flow stress data is using the correct units. For
problems such as high ratio extrusion with extremely high hydrostatic
stress, it may be necessary to increase the volume penalty constant by an
order of magnitude or two. Increasing the penalty constant may lead to
convergence problems, so a balance must be struck.
 Volume compensation (Preprocessor Objects Properties) can be
used to control volume loss during remeshing.
 Polygon sub stepping can be used to limit volume loss during simulation

4.3.5. Coordinate Systems

Figure 120: Coordinate system definition.

There are currently two types of coordinates systems for which stress, strain and
strain rate components can be viewed: Cartesian and Cylindrical. Cartesian
coordinates are the default setting, however the Coordinates button in the display
properties window allows the user to switch to Cylindrical Coordinates (See
Figure 120). Clicking the Coordinates button brings up a window that allows the
user to select the cylindrical coordinates. The user needs to define by z-axis for
the cylindrical coordinates. This axis is defined through a single point on the z-
axis and one vector direction. This works for contour plots and for point tracking.
The cylindrical coordinates won't be viewed until the user selects either a

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stress, strain or strain rate coordinate.

Figure 121: Display window.

4.3.6. Step Selection & Manipulation

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Figure 122: Step manipulation buttons.

The display window is used to graphically display simulation results. Results for
each step are selected from the step list. DEFORM™-3D allows a new method of
selecting and moving between steps. The primary way of selecting a step from
the step list is using the step list pulldown and clicking on the desired step (See
Figure 122). The Step List can also be traversed using the Step Manipulation
Buttons. These buttons and their function are explained in the following section.

Step Manipulation Buttons

Rewind

Will rewind the step list back to the first saved step.

Reverse

Will rewind the step list back one saved step

Forward

Will move to the next saved step in the step list.

Fast Forward

Will fast forward to the last saved step in the step list.

Play (Forward)

Will display the steps one by one until the last step is displayed, at which
point it will return to the first step and continue.

Play (Reverse)

Will display the steps one by one in reverse order until the first step is
displayed, at which point it will return to the last step and continue.

Stop

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Stops the playing (forward or backward) of steps.

4.3.7. Steps list

The step options such as adding and subtracting steps from the Step List are
accomplished from within this window. By default when DEFORM™-3D loads up,
only positive steps are displayed in the step list.

Figure 123: Step Selection Window.

Step

The Step list will show all steps that are to be used in the Post-Processor
highlighted.

Selection

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The selection method for the step list in the Post-Processor

All
All steps will be selected for use in the Post-Processor.

None
No steps are selected for use in the Post-Processor.

Remeshing
Remeshing will select/deselect the remeshing steps from the step list for use in
the Post-Processor.

Increment
This is the previous DEFORM™ method of step selection. The increment of
steps is out of the total number of steps, not just the saved steps.

Increment Saved
This will select an increment of steps, but the increment will be out of the saved
steps. For example: An Increment value of 5 in Increment Saved mode will
select every 5 saved steps between the starting and ending step for inclusion into
the Post-Processor

Increment
The Increment specified here will be used in the Increment and Increment Saved
step selections.

Start Step
The starting step for the increment range.

End Step
The ending step for the increment range.

Increment
The increment to be used in the range specified through the starting and ending
steps.

4.3.8. View Changes Within Viewport

The view of any object within a viewport can be altered using the dynamic zoom,

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zoon window pan and rotate buttons. These buttons all use the first mouse
button and a key combination to manipulate the view.

Rotation
This can be done by simultaneously holding down the combination of left
mouse button and CTRL button.

Pan
mouse button and SHIFT button.

Dynamic Zoom
mouse button and ALT button.

4.3.9. Coordinate System Selection

Object Coordinate System
The object coordinate system is displayed in the lower right corner of the data
display box. When this option is selected all constrained rotation about an axis
(X, Y, or Z) is applied relative to the object coordinate system. This is the default
rotation method.

Screen Coordinate System
The coordinate system used for object rotation can be either the screen
coordinates or the object coordinates. When the screen coordinates are selected
all constrained rotation about any axis (X, Y, or Z) is in relation to the screen.
This can be set by deselecting “use object coord for rotation” as seen in Figure
111.

Figure 124: Screen coordinate system.

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4.3.10. Rotation
Rotation can be done in either unconstrained, or constrained X, Y, or Z.
Unconstrained rotation will allow rotation about all three axes, while constrained
rotation will restrict rotation about either the X, Y, or Z axis. The axis for
constrained rotation can either be used using the screen coordinates or the
object coordinates.

When the first mouse button is pressed, a red circle appears on the screen. This
represents a sphere and it's center is at the center of rotation of the object. The
current rotation mode is also shown in the top left corner of the display. Moving
the mouse while holding the first button rotates the part and also shows a green
line which represents the current mouse position (it represents an arc on the
sphere). Once the desired rotation has been achieved, release the mouse button.
Bringing the mouse back to the start of the arc will return the object to its original
position. It will take some practice to get the feel for rotating the object. When
dealing with an object that has a large number of elements, such as an object
that has been mirrored.. The speed of rotation can become very slow. To
enhance the speed, one can view a cube that represents the object while the
rotation is taking place. Once the rotation is complete. The cube will be replaced
with the original object. To use this option, first hold down the SHIFT key, then
press the first mouse button and follow the procedure outlined above.

4.3.11. Coordinate Axis View
You may select any of the following views by clicking on one of the following
buttons. Each button will change the view of the objects in the display window to
the selected axis view. For example, clicking on the XY View button will change
the display window so the XY plane is displayed in the viewport.

4.3.12. Point Selection
Any point on a graph can be selected to obtain the corresponding data values for
that point.

Ruler

This tool allows the user to measure any distance between two points by
clicking consecutively on both points.

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4.3.13. Multiple Viewports

Viewport Option

Figure 125: Viewport options.

When DEFORM™3D loads up a database, the single Viewport mode is the
default mode for the display of the starting step of the database. The Viewport
Option pulldown is located in the Viewport->Multi window and shows the current
layout. A new mode can be selected by clicking on the desired viewport option.

By clicking the multi-link icon, , the user can toggle whether changes in one
viewport affects another viewport.

4.3.14. Nodes

The Nodes window will display information on the nodes of the currently selected
object. This information includes Position, State Variables, and Boundary
Conditions. A different node can be selected through the Node text box or by
selecting a node graphically in the display window. The information will change
as the step number displayed changes in the Display window.

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Figure 126: Nodes data window.

4.3.15. Elements

The Elements window will display information on the elements of the currently
selected object. A different element can be selected through the Element text
box or by selecting an element graphically in the display window. The information
displayed will change as the step number displayed changes in the Display
window.

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Figure 127: Elements data window.

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4.3.16. Viewport

The viewport options can all be changed from within the Viewport Options
window. These options will only be applied to the current Viewport in the Display
Window.

Figure 128: Viewport settings window (translation).

Figure 129: Viewport settings window (rotation).

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4.3.17. Data Extraction

Figure 130: Data Extraction window.
Data Type
Information can be written out in a keyword format to an output file. The following
items listed below can be extracted.

Object Data

Furthermore, specific keywords from Object data can be selected, as well as the
objects that the data is to be extracted for.

Output
The information can be extracted to either a single file or separated into multiple
files.

Steps
Single steps or all of the steps can be selected. To select a specific step,
highlight the step in the step scroll down menu towards the right side of the
screen. If 5 or 6 steps are desired and every step in the database is not desired.

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Go to the Steps option in the Post-processor select the steps desired. Go back
into the data extraction window and select all for steps.

Files
The information can be extracted to one file or multiple files. A good time to
implement this option, is when information for more than one step is desired.
Data can be written to one file, or multiple files labeled name0001.DAT,
name0002.DAT etc…

Data File
The is the name of the file, by default it is labeled DEFORM.DAT. This file can be
renamed, or browse can be used to find a existing file.

Extract
Once the desired information has been selected, press the extract button to
extract the information

View
By clicking on the view option, the file that is located in the Data file box can be
viewed.

4.3.18. Flownet

The flownet dialog allows the user to place some form (2D or 3D) of a grid onto
the object and let the simulation track the deformation of the grid throughout the
deformation. This is an excellent way in which to visualize any potential
irregularities in the grain structure or to view potential surface defects. The
flownet dialog window is seen in Figure 131. The following actions are required
sequentially to view a flownet:

1. Select the starting and ending step (See Figure 131). Click Next when
finished. By omitting steps, the time to compute the flownet calculations can be
reduced but the user should not omit steps if the entire process is of interest.

2. Select the grid type to be used. Either 2D or 3D grids can be used. The 2D
grids are less time-consuming for the same grid size since less information is
required in two-dimensions. For this example, the grid selection is chosen and
Next is clicked (See Error! Reference source not found.).

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Figure 131: Step selection dialog for flownet.

3. For the 2D grid, a plane has to be defined by using a slicing plane (See Figure
132). The plane selection method is similar to the method used by the slicing
dialog. After specifying a plane to be used, click Next. In other methods, there
are comparable methods for defining the regions where a flownet is valid.

4. At this time, the density of the grid needs to be specified. In the case of the
grid (See Figure 133), the number of grid can be set for a regularly spaced grid.
By selecting preview the grid can be seen before calculating for all steps. After a
desired grid is obtained, click Next.

5. At this time, advanced options are available such as saving either the
beginning or end pattern (Figure 134). This is useful if a flownet from a different
database is to be output to. Click Next when finished and the flownet will be
calculated.

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Figure 132: Region definition for flownet.

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Figure 133: Grid definition for the flownet.

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Figure 134: Advanced options of the flownet.

4.3.19. Mirroring

The mirroring dialog is seen in Figure 135. A part that has symmetry can be
viewed as an entire part by selecting the Add button and clicking on the
symmetry planes in the display window. To remove the mirrored section, select
delete button and click on any mirrored section. Any section can be removed
except for the original section.

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Figure 135: Mirroring dialogs.

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Chapter 5: Elementary Concepts in Metalforming
and Finite Element Analysis

Definition of stress, strain, and strain rate

Stress is the measure of force applied to a unit area of material. This variable is
of importance in forming in that material deform (change shape) different
amounts depending on how much stress they are under. There are several
definitions of stress.

Engineering Stress - force per unit area measured on the original undeformed
shape.
True Stress - force per unit area measured on the deformed shape. These two
definitions are shown in Figure 1 as a comparison. In general, the true stress is
more interesting for the engineer in analyzing a forming process. True stress will
indicate plastic yielding and other issues with better accuracy than engineering
stress.

Figure 136: Demonstration of concept of stress.

Strain is a measure of the total accumulated deformation a region of material
has undergone.
Mathematically, the two definitions of this are seen as follows:

Engineering Strain = (Change in Length) / (Original Length)

True Strain = Sum of incremental strains = ln ( (final length) / (initial length))

In Figure 2, the calculated strains for both an upset and a tensile test are shown.
Note that the Engineering strain gives rather round numbers for doubling or
halving the length of a test specimen. The advantage of true strain is that it is a
more accurate measure of the actual length change in the material and is used to
determine stress in DEFORM.

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Strain rate is a measure of the instantaneous rate of deformation a region of
material is experiencing. This quantity measures a rate of change of the strain at
a point of a material per unit time.

Figure 137: Demonstration of concept of strain.

In Figure 3, the engineering stress and strain are shown as closed form
expressions for a compression test. Note that both of these quantities fail to
account for the increase in area of the test specimen due to barrelling.

Figure 138: Engineering stress and strain for a compression test.

In Figure 4, the true stress and strain are shown as closed form expressions for a
tension test. Note that both of these expressions account for the change in the
cross-sectional area of the specimen during the test (assuming incompressible
material). This gives a better measure of the actual state of stress and strain the
material is under.

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Figure 139: Stress and strain defined for tension test.

All materials have a characteristic stress-strain curve that determines how the
material behaves structurally. For most isotropic metals, this behavior is of the
general shape seen in Figure 5. Note that the top and bottom curves are the
engineering stress-strain curves for a material and the middle curve is the true
stress-strain curves for a given material. The true stress-strain curve is the same
for either tension or compression, but they are not the same in terms of
engineering stress-strain.

Figure 140: Stress-strain curve.

For simplification, the stress-strain curve is divided into two regions. The steeply
sloped region at very low strain values is known as the elastic region. In the
elastic region, since strains are very low, when the material is unloaded and the
forces removed, the material returns to its original shape. In Figure 6, an object
is deformed in uniaxial tension. The change in length is shown and the
corresponding position on the stress-strain curve is shown. In this case, the

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deformation is completely elastic. After the tensile forces are removed, the
material will return to the original shape.

Figure 6: Diagram of elastic deformation.

The second region of a stress-strain curve is known as the plastic region. This
region comprises strains just above the elastic range and appear on the curve as
the less steeply sloped region on curve. In this region, the material does not
recover any the deformation that occurs. The only recovery that occurs is the
accumulated elastic strain. In Figure 7, a specimen under tension deforms first
elastically and then plastically. The loading curve in figure 7 first follows the
elastic loading curve and then follows the plastic curve. When the material is
unloaded and the forces are removed from the specimen, the material follows the
elastic curve down. When the material is completely unloaded, the deformation
left over is the permanent deformation of the body.

Figure 141: Diagram of plastic deformation.

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In DEFORM, the stress and strain used in the stress-strain curves are the known
as the effective stress and effective strain. The equations for these values are
seen below in figure 8.

Figure 142: Equations for effective stress and strain.

In DEFORM, the concept of flow stress is used. The idea of flow stress is
important in the case of incremental plasticity. As a material is deformed
plastically, the amount of stress required to incur an incremental amount of
deformation is given by the flow stress curve (which corresponds to the plastic
region of the true stress-true strain curve. In Figure 9, the concept is shown
visually.

Figure 143: Introduction to flow stress concept.

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Flow stress is strongly dependent on several state variables, among these are
accumulated strain, instantaneous strain rate and current temperature. As seen
in Figure 10, the flow stress curves can vary strongly with these state variables.
So, it is important to account for these variables to accurately determine the
behavior of the material.

Figure 144: Variation of flow stress with strain rate and temperature.

In the case where elastic deformation can be neglected, as in the case of bulk
metal forming, the Levy-Mises flow rule can be used to relate the stress tensor to
the strain rate tensor. This flow rule is shown in Figure 11. The coefficient, , is
a function of state variables and the material. This relation allows one to express
stress in terms of rate of deformation.

Figure 145: Levy-Mises flow rule.

In calculating metal flow, the minimum work rate principle is a cornerstone for
accurate calculation. This principle is defined below:

Minimum Work Rate Principle: the velocity distribution which predicts the
lowest work rate is the best approximation of the actual velocity distribution.

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This principle states that the material should always flow in the path of least
resistance. This is shown in Figure 12 where there are three different upset
cases and the amount of friction between the work piece and the tool determines
the flow pattern of the material. In the case of no friction, there is no resistance
for the material from flowing straight out uniformly. In the case of high friction,
there is much resistance from flowing outward, so a barreling behavior is
observed.

Figure 146: Minimum work rate principle. Note for each case, the actual velocity is the
one which incurs the lowest work rate for the work piece.

This minimum work rate principle can be expressed mathematically as the
following functional form seen in Figure 13. The top equation is simply a balance
of the body forces (1st term) versus the surface tractions (2nd term). The
manner in which this equation is solved for the velocities, is seen in the 2nd
equation. The velocities are solved by solving for when the variation in the
functional is stationary. Note that there is an extra term that maintains
incompressibility in the solution. This is done by integrating the volumetric strain
rate and multiplying by a large constant. Since the total solution should be zero,
the solution will tend to maintain a low volumetric strain rate to keep this
integral value low.

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Figure 147: Functional equation for minimum work rate principle.

In order to obtain a closed form solution for complex shapes, we need to resort to
mathematical tricks such as FEM. The introductory theory for this is discussed in
the following section.

Introduction to FEM theory

The principle of FEM theory is divide and conquer. First, one must divide the
problem into small little subproblems that are easily to formulate and after the
entire problem has been divided and formulated, they must all be carefully
combined and then solved. The manner in which a problem is divided is through
a process called meshing. In Figure 14, an axisymmetric body is being upset
between two flat dies. There is a grid that has been superimposed on the figure
of the work piece. This grid is the mesh that represents the body being
deformed. Each rectangle represents a portion of material, in this case each
rectangle corresponds to a ring, for which the equation in Figure 13 can be easily
solved. Each rectangle is called an element and the intersection of any grid lines
is called a node. An element corresponds to a region of material and a node
corresponds to a discrete point in space.

The solution for the equations in Figure 13 are the velocity at each node, which
are shown as vector arrows the right side of Figure 14. In additions to the bottom
equation of Figure 13, there are boundary conditions that should be specified in
order to provide a unique solution to the problem. In this problem, the velocity of
the top set of nodes is determined by the downward speed of the die as well as
the friction model between the work piece and the die. The boundary conditions
on the left side of the die is specified as a centerline condition meaning that the
nodes are not allowed to move either right or left. The bottom nodes also have a
symmetry condition meaning that they are not allowed to move up or down.
These three boundary conditions allow the mesh to behave as the actual part.

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Figure 148: 2D mesh of upset test. (Note: This mesh is extremely coarse for the sake of
clarity).

When the velocity at node points have been determined, their coordinates need
to be updated. The manner in which we update the nodal coordinates is by
integrating the velocity over the time step of the current step. In Figure 15, the
nodal positions are shown as updated from the previous stage. A simple
principle of note are clear from this figure:

If the nodal velocities change direction or magnitude over very small time
periods, a small time step size is required to correctly predict this behavior.

Figure 149: Updating nodal coordinates after a completed calculation.

The problem that now must be addressed is how to solve the equation in Figure
13 over a discrete set of points since the nodal values define the velocities only
at discrete locations. The way in which to solve this problem is to define shape
functions over the elements as a manner of providing a velocity field that satisfies
the compatibility requirement (continuous over the entire body). Figure 15 shows
a general equation for a shape function whose purpose is to define the velocity
profile over an element based on the nodal velocities. A one-dimensional case is
shown in Figure 16 as a simple linear function. The advantage of an equation of

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this form is that compatibility is maintained when the same nodes for any shared
element edge, define the velocity over that edge.

Figure 150: Description of a shape function.

Figure 16 also shows the case of a two-dimensional element.

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Figure 151: Description of shape function.

After all the equations for the elements have been written out, they must be
combined into a single set of simultaneous equations. This process is shown in
Figure 17. At the end, using a Newton-Raphson iteration method, the updated
velocity can be solved for by solving a simultaneous set of equations. Once this
velocity update is solved for, it is applied to the current velocity and velocity
update is solved again.

Figure 152: Construction of a stiffness matrix to solve for velocities.

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The general FEM solution process is given below:

1. Input Geometry & Processing Conditions
2. Generate Initial Guess of Velocity Field
single step:
3. Calculate Element Behavior Based on Velocity Field
& other variables (strain, temp, etc)
4. Calculate Force boundary conditions based on Velocity Field
5. Assemble and solve the matrix equation
6. Calculate the error
7. If error is too large, apply correction to velocity field and go to
step 3. otherwise, continue to step 8.
8. Update Geometry
9. Calculate temperature change for this step
10. Calculate new press velocity if necessary
11. If stopping criteria has been reached, END.
otherwise, go to step 3 and repeat the process

This concludes this short summary of the FEM process in metalforming. For
more information on FEM theory, please consider reading the following list of
references:

1. Kobayashi, S., Oh, S.I. and Altan T. Metalforming and the Finite-Element
Method. Oxford University Press. 1989.

2. Przemieniecki, J.S. Theory of Matrix Structural Analysis. Dover Publications.
1968.

3. Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Taylor, R.L. The Finite Element Method. McGraw-Hill.
1989.

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Chapter 6: User Routines
This chapter explains the various user routines available in the DEFORM system
for both the FEM engine and the post-processor. Examples on how to use each
type of routine, how to compile the code, and how to run the modified FEM
engine and post-processor are also covered.

The FEM engine user defined routines can be used for many different purposes
during a simulation. Currently user routines exist for flow stress definition,
movement control, calculation of user nodal values (USRNOD), calculation of
user element values (USRELM), damage models and many other specialized
needs. In the post-processor, user defined post-processing routines can be used
to calculate field variables using the steps stored in the database. To implement
the user routines you must have a FORTRAN compiler installed on your system
or the user may compile the routines on the SFTC website (Windows only).

User-Defined FEM Routines

User-Defined FEM Routines are FORTRAN subroutines in which the user can
change internal routines within the DEFORM FEM engine to achieve very
specialized functions within DEFORM. These subroutines can then be compiled
and linked to provided object code to generate a custom built FEM engine. All
the available subroutines are contained in a file named DEF_USR.FOR. This file
is a text format file containing all the available FORTRAN subroutines. To
compile this file, run the script file DEF_INS.COM, select the routine you would
like build, and select the platform for which you would like to build for. At this
point, the FORTRAN file will be compiled and liked to the object code named
DEF_SIM.OBJ. This will then generate a new FEM engine, named
DEF_SIM.EXE. This whole process is shown in Figure 153.

Currently user routines exist for flow stress definition, movement control,
calculation of two nodal values (USRNOD), calculation of two element values
(USRELM), and for other models. For example, there are many different
methods for a user to control the movement of a rigid body within DEFORM, e.g.
constant velocity, mechanical press, hammer press movement, speed as a
function of time. However, there are some cases where a slightly more
specialized movement control is required, such as movement based on variation
of state variables of the work piece. This can be performed using user-routines
since these variables are available when the movement of the rigid die is
calculated.

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Figure 153: Description on how to compile/link a new FEM engine.

Summary of subroutines and calling structure of user-defined FEM
routines

Here is a list of the different subroutines available to the user. With each, routine
is a brief description of its purpose and the frequency of it being used by
DEFORM.

1. USRRAT

Description: This routine allows the user to define a routine to calculate
incubation time and change of volume. This routine is called in the transformation
algorithm. This routine is called after each converged step.

2. INCUBT

Description: This routine is added for convenience to complement USRRAT.
This routine is called whenever INCUBT is called.

3. USRMTR

Description: This routine allows the user to calculate flow stress of a material.
This routine is called at the beginning of each iteration.

4. UFLOW#

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Description: This routine is one of the many flow stress calculation routines.
This routine allows the user to store many different flow stress routines in the
DEF_USR.FOR and specify which routine is called in the Pre-Processor. This
routine is called each time USRMTR is called.

5. USRDSP

Description: This routine allows the user to calculate the die speed of a rigid
object that has movement defined as a user model. This routine is called at the
beginning of each step.

6. DIESP#

Description: This routine is called by USRDSP as a means of segregating
movement routines in the same manner as the flow stress functions. This routine
is called whenever USRDSP is called.

7. USPM

This subroutine allows the user to specify parameters for densification of a
porous material model. This routine is called before stiffness matrix generation
which means it's called at the beginning of each iteration.

8. USRUPD

Description: This is the user defined nodal and element variable subroutine.
This routine allows the user to calculate special state variables and store them
for each node and element. These variables can be viewed in the Post-
Processor or be used during the simulation in flow stress calculation. User Nodal
variables are updated only at the end of a converged step. User Element
variables are updated at the beginning of each iteration and at the end of a
converged step. The purpose for this is that the most current user element
variable can be fed into the user-defined flow stress routine.

9. USRCRP

Description: This routine is used to define creep rate and its derivative as a
routine. This routine is available for only elasto-plastic materials. This is called
upon the beginning of each iteration.

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10. USRMSH

Description: This routine is used as a general purpose routine that has access to
many internal variables within DEFORM. This routine is advocated when other
routines cannot satisfy the needs of the user. This routine is called at the
beginning and end of each step.

11. USRDMG

Description: This routine allows the user to define a special damage model as a
FORTRAN routine. This routine is called at the end of each step once per
element.

12. USERWEAR

Description: This routine allows the user to define a special wear model as a
FORTRAN routine. This routine is called at the end of each converged step once
per element.

13. USR_TRNF_KINE

Description: This routine allows the user to define a transformation as a
FORTRAN routine. This routine is called at the end of each converged step once
per element.

User-Defined Post-Processing Routines

In the post-processor, user defined post-processing routines can be used to
calculate field variables using the steps stored in the database. The manner in
which these values are computed is based on creating a shared library file to
compute variables based on the variables stored in the database. To implement
user-defined post-processing variables,

The file in the USR (UNIX) or UserRoutine (Windows) subdirectory of DEFORM-
3D should be copied to a local directory and the file PSTUSR.FOR or pstusr3.f
can be edited. The manner in which to edit this file is discussed in a later section
of this document.

After editing, this file can be compiled and linked as a shared object file
(UNIX/LINUX) or a dynamically-linked library (Windows).

This shared library can be called by going to the User Variable tracking window
seen below. To select the library, click on the library tab and select the library
that was built. After this, go back to the tracking window and press the Track
Data button. After the data has been tracked, go to the State Variables window

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and select the USR tab and then the state variables can be plotted to User
Variables.

The only difficultly is in editing the file PSTUSR.FOR. This requires a slight
knowledge of the FORTRAN language and a compiler available on the computer
one is working on. Note: User-defined Post-Processor routines can only use
data that was saved in the database. If a very coarse step increment was made,
variables having a cumulative effect can have considerable error.

6.1. User defined FEM routines
This section contains a description of the different FEM user routines available in
the current release of DEFORM-3D. The skeletal code for user routines is stored
in DEF_USR.FOR which has the FORTRAN functions that the FEM engine calls
if a user routine is to be used. The user routines calculates the specified values
and returns output values.

User defined data (USRDEF)
The user defined data (USRDEF) field in the pre-processor can be used to stored
data that can be used to specify parameters for the user-routines. This data can
be accessed in the Simulation Controls, Advanced Controls menu. In the user-
routines the following code lets the user access the USRDEF values common
block through the variable IUSRVL.

CHARACTER*80 IUSRVL
COMMON /IUSR/ IUSRVL(10)

To read and write data to the USRDEF variable the following sections of code
can be used.

C C TO READ DATA (10 RESERVED LINES)
C
READ(IUSRVL(LINE NUMBER),*) DATA1,DATA2,DATA3...
C
C TO WRITE DATA (10 RESERVED LINES)
C
WRITE(IUSRVL(LINE NUMBER),*) NEWDATA1, NEWDATA2, NEWDATA3 ...

User defined flow stress routines (USRMTR)

If the flow stress models in DEFORM are not applicable for a process, a user
defined flow stress can be calculated during the simulation. The flow stress can
be a function of strain, strain rate, temperature, user node and user element
variables. The flow stress subroutine should return the following information :

YS = FLOW STRESS
YPS = DERIVATIVE OF FLOW STRESS W.R.T. TEPS
FIP = DERIVATIVE OF FLOW STRESS W.R.T. EFEPS

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where

TEPS = EFFECTIVE STRAIN
EFEPS = EFFECTIVE STRAIN RATE

A maximum of 100 flow stress routines can be defined in this program. In the
pre-processor Material Properties the flow stress (FSTRES) type selected should
be Advanced and the routine number to be used should be specified for each
material group which uses the user routine. This routine number (NPTRTN)is
passed to the user defined flow stress subroutine to control branching to the
specified UFLOW module.
Examples of using the user defined flow stress subroutine are given below :
1. The flow stress depends on the strain rate sensitivity index (PEM) and on
the effective strain rate (EFEPS).
PEM = 0.1
YS = 10. * (EFEPS)**PEM
FIP = 10. * PEM * (EFEPS)**(PEM-1.)
YPS = 0.

2. The flow stress depends on the strain index (PEN), strain rate sensitivity
index (PEM), the effective strain (STRAIN) and the effective strain rate
(EFEPS). The value of effective strain can be the element strain or from a
user defined state variable. In the example given below the effective strain
comes from a user defined state variable which stores the current strain.
This example also illustrates the concept of using the user defined state
variables to calculate flow stress.
STRAIN = USRE1(1)
IF (STRAIN.LE.0.) STRAIN = 1.E-5
PEN = 0.15
PEM = 0.1
YS = 10. * STRAIN**PEN* (EFEPS)**PEM
FIP = 10. * STRAIN**PEN* PEM * (EFEPS)**(PEM-1.)
YPS = 10. * PEN * STRAIN**(PEN-1.) * (EFEPS)**PEM

The UFLOW routine is called 5 or 9 times per iteration for each element (tet or
brick, respectively). The calling sequence for a single element is:
1. Guess the velocity of each node in the element
2. At each integation point (4 or 8 for tet or brick) calculate the strain rate.
3. Evaluate the flow stress at each integration point using the following
values
 Strain rate at integration point
 Temperature at integration point at the beginning of the step
 Strain = Strain at beginning of step + (Strain Rate * Time Step)
4. Evaluate the flow stress at the center of the element using the following
values
 Strain rate at the center of the element
 Temperature at the center of the element at the beginning of the step

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 Strain = Strain at the beginning of the step
This sequence is repeated for each element. The stiffness matrix is generated
and solved using these values. The solution yields a velocity correction vector,
(which gives the velocity error norm) and the difference between internal and
boundary forces (which gives the force error norm). When these two values have
converged, the step data is written to the database, and temperature and
microstructure calculations are performed, then the process is repeated from
step 1.

User defined movement control (USRDSP)
DEFORM supports definition of the die movement for machines which cannot be
controlled using the movement mechanisms given in the DEFORM system. The
die movement can be a function of the following variables :

C DTK : TIME INCREMENT
C KOBJ : OBJECT NUMBER
C KSTEP : Step Number (N)
C ISTATUS: 0 - the begain of the step
C 1 - the end of the step
C NUSRVE : Total number of degrees of freedom in User element Variables
C NUSRND : Total number of degrees of freedom in User nodal Variables
C
C COMMON /ELMCOM/
C RZE : NODAL POINT COORDINATES (KONP corner nodes)
C URZE : NODAL POINT VELOCITIES (KONP corner nodes)
C STSE : STRESS COMPONENTS
C EPSE : STRAIN RATE COMPONENTS
C EFEPSE : EFFECTIVE STRAIN RATE
C EFSTSE : EFFECTIVE STRESS
C TEPSE : TOTAL EFFECTIVE STRAIN
C TEMPE : NODAL TEMPERATURES
C USRE1 : USER ELEMENT VARIABLES (INPUT: AT the Beginning of STEP N)
C USRE2 : USER ELEMENT STATE VARIABLES (OUTPUT: At the End of the STEP N)
C NODEE : CONNECTIVITIES OF THE ELEMENT
C KELE : ELEMENT NUMBER
C KONP : NODES PER ELEMENT
C
C COMMON /NODCOM/
C RZN : Nodal Point Coordinates
C URZN : Nodal Point Velocities
C DRZN : Nodal Point Displacement
C TEMPN : Nodal Point Temperature
C USRN1 : User Nodal Variables (Input: At the beginning of Step N)
C USRN2 : User Nodal Variables (Output: At the end of Step N)
C KNODE : Node Number

The output that the user has to provide is :

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UPDV = THE UPDATED DIE SPEED IN THE SPECIFIED DIRECTION
UPDF = THE UPDATED DIE FORCE IN THE SPECIFIED DIRECTION
DTIME = DESIRED TIME STEP

The die speed routines are functions which are called from the USRDSP
subroutine based on the function number specified in the Object, Movement
controls window.
To use the values for AVGSRT, STRMX the primary work piece has to be
specified as the object whose average and max strain rate are required. This is
the keyword PDIE(2) in Simulation Controls, Advanced Controls in the pre-
processor.
Examples of using the user defined die movement subroutine is given below :

Example Case #1

The die speed routine in DIESP1 controls the speed based on a user
specified value for the average strain rate. The value of the average
strain rate is specified using the USRDEF fields.
C
C THE DIE SPEED OF THIS ROUTINE IS DETERMINED BY:
C
C WHERE SR IS THE APPROXIMATED STRAIN RATE DURING
C AN UPSETTING PROCESS
C HI IS THE INITIAL BILLET HEIGHT.
READ(IUSRVL(1),*) HI
STRK = STRKX*STRKX + STRKY*STRKY
STRK = DSQRT(STRK)
C
C FIND the Current Height
C
WRITE(6,*) TMPMX
HJ = HI - STRK
UPDV = AVGSRT * HJ

The goal of this routine is to define a die velocity by the following equation:

V   ( H initial  S )
.

where:
V = Output die velocity
 = Average strain rate
Hinitial = Initial billet height
S = Current die displacement

At the beginning of this code, a variable is fetched from our USRDEF fields, the initial
height of the billet.

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READ(IUSRVL(1),*) HI

The die displacement can be computed by the following equation:

S  Dx  D y
2 2

The stroke is computed by the following code:
STRK = STRKX*STRKX + STRKY*STRKY
STRK = DSQRT(STRK)

Example Case #2

In the case of a screwpress, the rotational energy is converted to
translational motion to form a part. The process ends when the energy
stored in the flywheel runs out or when the clutch on the drive mechanism
is disengaged. Each step, the amount of energy may change due to
energy being consumed by deforming the work piece. The total energy is
an intial condition and the change in the current energy needs to be
computed each step by,

E O  E I  E
where:
EO = Energy after previous step
EI = Energy at current step
E = Change in energy over previous step

The change in energy can simply be calculated by the following equation,

E 
FI d I

where:
E = Change in energy over previous step
FI = Die force over previous step
dI = Distance traveled over previous step

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= The efficiency of the process.

Based on the current energy, the translational speed of the die can first be
computed by calculating the rotational speed of the flywheel,


2 EO
I
where:
 = Rotational speed of the flywheel.
EO = Energy of current step.
I = Moment of inertia

Using the rotational speed, the translational speed can be simply
determined by considering how the spindle shaft is threaded,

VO   (d sin  t )
where:
VO = The output translational velocity of the die.
 = Rotational speed of the flywheel.
d = diameter of the spindle
t = pitch angle of the spindle threads

This can be implemented in the following code:

DATA ENERGY/ 10000.0/
eff = 0.2
MI = 10
PI = 3.14159
diam = 1.0;
pitch = 0.1;

C This calculates the change in the energy between steps
e_change = (FRZY * STRKY) / eff

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C This updates the energy value
ENERGY = ENERGY - e_change

C This makes sure that the energy doesn't go negative
if(ENERGY.LT.0) THEN
ENERGY = 0.0
endif

C This computes the rotational speed based on the current energy
rot_spd = SQRT((2*ENERGY)/MI)

C This converts angular speed to rotations per second
rot_spd = rot_spd / (2 * PI)

C This calculates the tranlational velocity of the screw press
V_out = rot_spd * PI * diam * sin(pitch);

C This updates the value
UPDV = V_out

User defined node and element value (USRUPD)
The user can implement subroutines which can calculate two or more nodal and
elemental values during the simulation for each node/element of the objects in
the simulation. Note: The default number of user nodal/elemental variables
is set at 2. If the user would like to increase this number it should be done
in the Advanced->Node Data/Element Data window. There is a User tab
that allows the number of variables to be set above the default as well as
define the name for each variable. The inputs are all state variables and the
outputs are the values for USRNOD, and USRELM. The variables can also be
used in the flow stress routines to model flow stress as a function of new state
variables.
The subroutine USRUPD is called to calculate the nodal and element values,
which in turn calls USRSV1, USRSV2, etc based on the value of NPRTRN the
material group number of the current element. If nodal values are being
calculated the branching based on the material group number will not work if an
object is composed of more than one material group.
The advantage of using these variables instead of doing the same procedure
using user defined post-processing is that these values are calculated for each
step in the database whereas user defined post-processing is only for the steps
that are stored in the database.
Data that is passed to the user variable subroutine are stored in COMMON
blocks as detailed below :

238

Common block USRCTL
DTK : Time increment
KOBJ : Object number
KSTEP : Step Number (N)
ISTATUS : 0 - the beginning of the step
1 - the end of the step
Common block ELMCOM
RZE : Four or Eight corner coordinates
URZE : Velocity (X,Y,Z)
STSE : Stress (X,Y,Z,XY,YZ,ZX)
EPSE : Strain rate (X,Y,Z,XY,YZ,ZX)
EFEPSE : effective strain rate
EFSTSE : Effective stress
TEPSE : Total effective strain
RDTYE : Density
TEMPE : Temperature
USRE1 : Element user state variable 1
USRE2 : Element user state variable 2
USRNE : Nodal user state variables 1,2 at 4 nodes
NODEE : Connectivity
KELE : Global element number (All objects)
KGROUP : Material group number
KONP : Number of nodes per element (4(tet) or 8(brick))
Common block NODCOM
RZN : Nodal point coordinates
URZN : Nodal point velocities
DRZN : Nodal point displacement
TEMPN : Nodal point temperature
USRN1 : User defined state variables (Input : At the beginning of
Step N)
USRN2 : User defined state variables (Output: At the end of Step
N)
KNODE : Node number

The variable USRN1 stores the nodal variables at the beginning of the step (the
current value). After computing a new value for the user defined variables the
results should be stored in USRN2 at the end of each step. For the element
variables, USRE1 stores the values at the beginning of the step and the updated
value must be stored in USRE2.
If the variables are not being calculated, then the value stored in USRN1 and
USRE1 must be copied to USRN2 and USRE2 respectively.
Examples of using the user defined nodal and element variables are given below
:
1. The maximum principal stress is stored in the second user element value
(USRE(2)) and the first element variable is not defined.
IF (ISTATUS.EQ.1.AND.KELE.GT.0) THEN
USRE2(1)=USRE1(1)
CALL USR_MAXPRN(STSE,PRNSTS)
IF (USRE2(1).LT.PRNSTS) USRE2(1) = PRNSTS
ENDIF

2. In this example the average cooling rate (F/min) from 1300 F to 600 F is

239

calculated and the result stored in the second user nodal variable
(USRN2(2)). Here CURTIM is the current time in the simulation which can
be accessed from the COMMON block CLOK.
COMMON /USER_DATA/ AMAX_TEMP, AMIN_TEMP, ADIF_TEMP
DATA AMAX_TEMP, AMIN_TEMP, ADIF_TEMP
$ / 1300, 600, 700 /
IF (ISTATUS.EQ.1.AND.KNODE.GT.0) THEN
IF (TEMPN.LT.AMAX_TEMP.AND.USRN1(1).EQ.0.AND.
$ TEMPN.GT.AMIN_TEMP) THEN
USRN2(1) = CURTIM
USRN2(2) = 0
ELSE IF (TEMPN.LT.AMIN_TEMP.AND.USRN1(2).EQ.0) THEN
USRN2(1) = CURTIM - USRN2(1)
USRN2(2) = ADIF_TEMP/((CURTIM-USRN1(1))/60)
ELSE
USRN2(1) = USRN1(1)
USRN2(2) = USRN1(2)
ENDIF
ENDIF

3. In many situations the flow stress may be a function of a user defined
variable. In the example given below the value of strain is stored in the
user variable and can then be used in the USRMTR routines to calculate
the flow stress of the material.
IF (ISTATUS.EQ.1.AND.KELE.GT.0) THEN
C
C Strain = time increment * strain rate
C
USRE2(1)=USRE1(1) + DTMAXC * EFEPSE
C
C Calculate max principal stress and if greater than current
value
C store in the user element value
C
USRE2(2)=USRE1(2)
RETURN
ENDIF
C
IF (ISTATUS.EQ.1.AND.KNODE.GT.0) THEN
USRN2(1)=USRN1(1)
USRN2(2)=USRN1(2)
RETURN
ENDIF

User defined damage models (USRDMG)

User defined damage models can be implemented for calculating damage or for
use with the fracture module of DEFORM where elements can be deleted when
their damage values exceeds a certain value. To use the damage model select
the fracture mode (FRCMOD) as User Routines in Materials Properties,

240

Advanced and specify the user routine number to be called in the subroutine
USRDMG.
The damage routines are functions USRDM1 onwards with the inputs being as
follows :
C NRT = DAMAGE MODEL NUMBER
C STS = STRESS
C EFSTS = EFFECTIVE STRESS
C EFEPS = EFFECTIVE STRAIN RATE
C DAMAG = PREVIOUS ACCUMULATED DAMAGE
C STRLMT = STRAIN LIMIT
C DTIME = TIME INCREMENT
The output is the new value of damage
DAMAG = NEW VALUE OF ACCUMULATED DAMAGE
The routine USRDM1 has an example on how the above routine is to be used.
The default damage model in DEFORM is the Freudenthal criterion as follows.
Note that after the calculation is made, the computed damage value is returned
to the variable DAMAG. The calculation is performed only if two criterion are
met:
1. The effective strain rate is above the limiting strain rate and
2. The effective stress is greater than zero.
Note that if the calculation is skipped, the current step value will be the
same as the previous step value.

Here is the sample code included with the DEFORM-3D package:

C This routine calculates the accumulated damage based on
C the Freudenthal criterion for each object.
C
IF (EFEPS.LE.STRLMT) GO TO 10
IF (EFSTS.LT.0.) GO TO 10
C
DAMAG = DAMAG + EFSTS*EFEPS*DTIME
C
10 RETURN

User defined general routine (USRMSH)

This user routine is recommended when no other routine will accomplish what is
desired. The flexibility of this routine makes this a very powerful option but often
other routines will accomplish the same task in much less effort. This routine is
called once at the beginning and end of each step. Also, it is called once for
each object in the simulation. For example, if there are 3 objects in a simulation,
this routine will be called three times (once for each object) at the beginning of
each step and three times at the end of each step.
A list of the input variables is taken from the code and is listed as follows:

241

C RZ(3,NUMNP): Nodal Coordinateis
C DRZ(3,NUMNP): Nodal displacemnts
C URZ(4,NUMNP): Nodal Velocities, and pressures (for tets only)
C TEMP(NUMNP) : Nodal temperatures
C DTMP(NUMNP) : Nodal temperature change in the step
C FRZA(3,NUMNP): Nodal external forces
C FRZB(3,NUMNP): Nodal reaction forces
C EFSTS(NUMEL): Effective stress
C EFEPS(NUMEL): Effective strain rate
C TEPS(NUMEL) : Total plastic strain
C RDTY(NUMEL) : Relative element Densities
C STS (6,NUMEL): Stress tensor components (Engineering definition)
C EPS (6,NUMEL): Strain rate components (Engineering definition)
C DCRP(6,NUMEL): Creep rate components (Engineering definition)
C TSRS(6,NUEML): Strain components (Engineering definition)
C DAMG(NUMEL) : Damages
C USRVE(NUSRVE,NUMEL): User defined Element Variables
C NUSRVE: Number of User defined Element Variables
C (Must be declared in the Pre-Processor)
C USRVN(NUSRND,NUMEL): User defined nodal Variables
C NUSRND: Number of User defined nodal variables
C (must be declared in the Pre-processor)
C
C ATOM(NUMNP): Dominating Atom Contents
C HEATND(NUMNP): Nodal Heat Source
C WEAR(3,NUMNP): nodal wear parameters
C WEAR(1,N): Interface temperature (in Deg. Absolute)
C WEAR(2,N): Sliding velocity
C WEAR(3,N): Interface pressure
C To compute and save the nodal wear parameters user
C needs to make sure that a file(empty) called
C 'MACHINING_INDICATOR.TXT' exists in the working directory
C prior to database generation for the simulation
C This can also be done by checking the 'Tool Wear' box
C in the Database Generation menu of the GUI.
C EVOL(NUMEL): Elemental volume
C
C MICRO-STRUCTURE RELATED VARIABLE
C
C Available ONLY for HT application

242

C
C HDNS(2,*): Hardness
C VF(NTMATR,*): Volume Fraction
C VFN(NTMATR,*): Transformation Starting Volume Fraction
C DVF(NTRELN,*): Transformation Volume Fraction Change Ammount
C TICF(NTRELN,*): Incubation Time
C GRAIN(NGRNVAL,*): Grain Size
C
C REAL*8 Variables
C
C CURTIM: Current Time
C KSTEP: Current Step Number
C DTMAXC: Time Step
C
C Integer*4 Integer Array
C
C NBCD(3,NUMNP): Nodal Boundary Condition
C 0- Traction specified => FRZA
C 1- Prescribed Velocity => URZ
C 2- Normal pressure Specified => PRZA
C NBCDT(NUMNP): Temperature Boundary Condition
C 0- Prescribed Nodal heat
C 1- Prescribed Nodal Temperature
C
C NONP : Nodes per element (4/8 for each tet/brick)
C NOD(NONP,*): Element Connectivities (global node numbering)
C MATR(NUMEL): Material group number
C NBDRY(4,NUMFAC): Boundary node list (Global node numbering)
C
C Interger*4 Integer Variables
C
C KOBJ : Current Object number
C
C NUMEL: Total number of elements of KOBJ
C NUMNP: Total number of nodes of KOBJ
C NDSTART: Starting node number of KOBJ
C NDEND : Ending Node Number of KOBJ
C
C NEDGE: Total number of oundary edges of KOBJ
C NTMATR: Total number of Materials
C NTRELN: Total Number of Inter-materail relations
C NGRNVAL: Number of Grain-related Variables

243

C NROUTINE: User Controlled Routine number (?)
C AVGSRT: Average Strain Rate
C SRTLMT: Limiting Strain Rate
C
C ISTATUS: 0 -> Called at the beginning of each step prior to the analysis
C 1 -> Called at the end of each step prior to writing to database
C
C IUSRFLAG: An integer flag at user's disposal
C NWEAR_CMP : Number of parameters computed for tool wear computations

No output is required for this routine.

Example #1: Applying uniform distributed heating to a meshed object

In this example, we will apply heat to each element and to make the heating
uniform, we will weight the heat to the volume of each element.

Here is an outline of the procedure in which this can be done.
1. A variable, HHH, is first defined that stores the heat rate per unit volume to be
applied. The value in this example is 100. In SI units this is N*mm/mm3. In
English units this is klb*in/in3.
2. Loop over the elements in the meshed object.
3. Inside the loop, calculate heat rate per node by multiplying by volume and
then dividing by the number of nodes.
4. Loop over each node for a given element and add the heat rate to each
individual node.

Here is the code that performs this:

C
C The following example shows how the NODAL HEAT is added.
C HHH is the heat rate per unit volume provided by the user.
C
HHH = 100.0

DO 500 L = 1, NUMEL
HT = EVOL(L)*HHH/NONP
DO I = 1, NONP
N = NOD(I,L)
HEATND(N) = HEATND(N) + HT
ENDDO

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500 CONTINUE

Example #2: Point tracking elastic strain components for an elasto-plastic
material

For elasto-plastic materials, there are a total of five sets of strain components
available. These are plastic, elastic, creep, transformation and total. Note that
total does not equal the sum of plastic, elastic, creep and transformation.
These can be set in the Simulation Control->Advanced->Output Control window
as seen in Figure 154.

Figure 154: The optional strain types for elasto-plastic materials

The selections in Figure 154 affect how the TSRS variable is arranged for elasto-
plastic materials. It is a two-dimensional array where the first index determines
which direction the component applies to. For example,

TSRS(1,n) = x direction of strain for component n,
TSRS(2,n) = y direction of strain for component n,
TSRS(3,n) = z direction of strain for component n,
TSRS(4,n) = xy shear of strain for component n,
TSRS(5,n) = yz shear of strain for component n,
TSRS(6,n) = xz shear of strain for component n.

The second index contains information on the element number and the
component of strain. For example in the case where plastic and elastic strains
are saved,

245

TSRS(1,1) = x direction of plastic strain for element 1,
TSRS(1,2) = x direction of elastic strain for element 1,
TSRS(1,4) = x direction of elastic strain for element 2,
TSRS(1,6) = x direction of elastic strain for element 3.

To point track the x-component of the plastic and elastic strains, use the following
code in the USRMSH program. The 1st user element variable stores the x
component of plastic strain and the 2nd user element variable stores the x
component of elastic strain.

IF (ISTATUS.EQ.0) RETURN
C
C Copy X value plastic and elastic strain values
DO 200 L = 1, NUMEL
IND = 2*L - 1
USRVE(1,L) = TSRS(1,IND)
USRVE(2,L) = TSRS(1,IND+1)
200 CONTINUE
C

Windows building procedure for FEM routines

Files provided by SFTC:
(1) Libraries
 DEF_SIM_USR.lib

 DEF_SIM_P4_USR.lib

(2) Project files

 DEF_SIM_USR.gui (DEF_SIM_USR_Absoft70.gui for Absoft 7.0 )

 DEF_SIM_P4_USR.gui ( DEF_SIM_P4_USR_Absoft70.gui for
Absoft 7.0 )
(3) Sample fortran source file

 def_usr.f
PROCEDURE

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Synopsis:

Compile def_usr.f and link this library with the DEF_SIM_USR_LIB.lib or
DEF_SIM_P4_USR_LIB.lib provided by SFTC. As result, an executable file
DEF_SIM.exe or DEF_SIM_P4.exe will be produced.
SFTC provides two project files and one FORTRAN file that can be used as
templates.

Procedure:
If you can find Compile_DEF_SIM_USR.bat in the current directory, you can
compile the user routine by simply click on that batch file, and copy the
DEF_SIM.exe or DEF_SIM_P4.exe to the folder where DEFORM3D installed.
To build DEF_SIM.exe follows these steps:
(1) Double click DEF_SIM_USR.gui ( DEF_SIM_USR_Absoft70.gui if you are
using Absoft 7.0), Absoft Pro Fortran compiler will open automatically.
(2) Click on icon or in the menu bar click on Tools->Build to build
DEF_SIM.exe.
(3) Copy DEF_SIM.exe to the DEFORM3D/V5_0 directory (do not forget to make
a backup copy of the original DEF_SIM.exe).
To build DEF_SIM_P4.exe follows these steps:
(1) Double click DEF_SIM_P4_USR.gui ( DEF_SIM_P4_USR_Absoft70.gui if
you are using Absoft 7.0), Absoft Pro Fortran compiler will open automatically.
(2) Click on icon or in the menu bar click on Tools->Build to build
DEF_SIM_P4.exe.
(3) Copy DEF_SIM_P4.exe to the DEFORM3D/V5_1 directory (do not forget to
make a backup copy of the original DEF_SIM_P4.exe).

Compiling user routines for UNIX platforms

The user routines are called for each node/element for every step during the
simulation and efficient coding practices should be followed to minimize
simulation time. Do not open or close data files during each subroutine call as
this can degrade performance significantly. The USRDEF field in the pre-
processor can be used to store a limited number of parameters. If you require
more space than what is available in USRDEF then open the data files in the
user subroutines and store a static variable in a COMMON block so that the file
does not have to read each time the user subroutine is called.
After the FORTRAN code has been modified a new FEM engine can be build
using the INSTALL3D script which is located in the $DEFORM3_DIR or using
the script build_fem which is in the $DEFORM3_DIR/USR directory. If the
INSTALL3D program is being used, the code in $DEFORM3_DIR will be altered
(you must have write permissions). If you wish to build a local copy of the FEM
engine code then copy all files from the $DEFORM3_DIR/USR directory to your

247

local directory. Then run the script build_fem using the following command:
> build_fem
This builds a new copy of the FEM engine DEF_SIM.EXE in the local directory.
After this process is completed, simulations using the new user defined routines
can be run using the local copy of the FEM engine.

Running the modified FEM engine for UNIX platforms

If the FEM engine is built in the DEFORM directory with user routines, all users
have access to the same user routines. If a local copy of the FEM engine is to be
built and run then the DEF_ARM.COM script has to be copied to the local
directory and the calls to DEF_SIM.EXE have to be modified to call the local
copy of the program. In place of the calls
$DEFORM3_DIR/EXE/DEF_SIM.EXE
replace it with
./DEF_SIM.EXE
where ./DEF_SIM.EXE is the local copy of the FEM engine. When simulation
jobs are submitted using the GUI or text based main program, the alias
DEF_ARM is used to start the script DEF_ARM_CTL.COM which in turn runs
DEF_ARM.COM.
When using a local copy of the FEM engine, copy DEF_ARM_CTL.COM to a
local directory and change the alias for DEF_ARM to point to the local copy of
DEF_ARM_CTL.COM. This alias is defined in the
$DEFORM3_DIR/CONFIG.COM and a line in the .cshrc after the source
$DEFORM3_DIR/CONFIG.COM redefining the alias should work. In the .cshrc
file the following modifications can be made.
setenv DEFORM3_DIR '/disk1/deform/3d/v51'
source $DEFORM3_DIR/CONFIG.COM
#
# Old alias
#
alias DEF_ARM $DEFORM3_DIR/COM/DEF_ARM_CTL.COM
#
# New alias which is a local copy of DEF_ARM_CTL.COM
#
alias DEF_ARM $HOME/DEF_ARM_CTL.COM
Also in the local copy of DEF_ARM_CTL.COM the following calls should be
replaced.
$DEFORM3_DIR/COM/DEF_ARM.COM
with the local version of
$HOME/DEF_ARM.COM
After this has been done simulations can be run using the local copy of the FEM
engine and jobs can be started using the user-interface.
One problem that can occur is that if the .cshrc has an exit for non-interactive

248

shells and the new definitions are after this, then they will never be defined when
running a simulation. Place the new command to run the local copy of DEF_ARM
just after the definitions for the regular version of DEFORM.

Running the modified FEM engine for Windows platforms

If the FEM engine has been built for Windows, the only way in which to utilize it is
to swap it with the current engine. The current engine with be located with the
current installation of DEFORM-3D usually in a directory such as
C:DEFORM3DV5_1. If it is not there, look for a file named DEF_SIM.EXE.

Compiling User Routines on the DEFORM Support Website for Windows
Machines

There is now the possibility to compile user routines for Windows platforms using
the SFTC website. The location of the website is as follows and is available to
only current customers of DEFORM:

http://support.deform.com/3d/support/fortran/

Figure 155: The DEFORM webpage for compiling user routines.

249

Figure 155 shows the webpage where the user routines are compiled. There are
various versions of DEFORM listed on the website and the appropriate version
should be selected. The left half of the webpage is the user FEM routines that
can be compiled and the right half are the user post-processing routines that can
be compiled. To compile a user routine, click the appropriate Browse... button
and load the fortran file that should be compiled. After this, click the Submit File
button and the website will guide you to download a zip file. This zip file will
contain the following information:

1. The original fortran file you submitted.
2. A message file with the output of the compiler/linker.
3. A .dll file or an .exe file if the compilation was successful. If not, please refer
to the error message in output file from the compiler/linker.

For more information on user routines, please refer to the section on user
routines in the manual.

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6.2. User defined post-processing routines
User defined post-processing can be used to generate plots of user variables
after running a simulation. It uses the steps that are stored in the database and
any type of variable can be plotted in the post-processor for these steps. The
calculation of this variable is done using a FORTRAN program PSTUSR.FOR
(UNIX) or pstusr3.f (Windows) which is stored in the $DEFORM3_DIR 3/USR
(UNIX) directory or the <DEFORM-3D installation directory>/User
Routine/PostProcessor directory (Windows).

It is important to note that these variables do not affect the results of the
simulation. There are 10 user-defined routines, each of these can be used to
calculate 20 different user variables. After the code for these variables has been
specified the user defined routines have to be compiled. The compilation
procedure for UNIX and Windows differs and is outlined below. The end result of
the compilation creates a shared dynamic library for the GUI post-processor.
Some applications of user variables are to evaluate the micro-structure after the
simulation, to predict the hardness, yield strength of different regions of the
forged part, to evaluate failure using a critical damage value, calculate the
cooling rate, etc...

User defined post-processing (USRVAR)
The user defined post-processing routines have to be written using FORTRAN in
the file PSTUSR.FOR or pstusr3.f. When user variable tracking is done the
functions in this FORTRAN program are called for the steps that have been
selected in the post-processor. The user function is evaluated at each
node/element of the object for which the variables are tracked. The user
subroutine is called at the beginning of tracking to get the variable names, then at
the first step to get the initial values for all variables and then called for all the
steps present in the database being tracked. There are three phases in the
tracking process :

PHASE 1 :
The user variable function is called with the INIT flag set to to "0". This is done
once before tracking is started. During this phase the variables names (VNAME)
should be defined so that they can be displayed in plots on the screen. The
variables for which "VNAME" is defined are tracked.
For easier identification purpose, it is recommended that proper name or
descriptions be assigned to "VNAME". This can be done when the user
subroutine is called with INIT = 0 as shown below :
IF(INIT.EQ.0) THEN
VNAME(1) = 'User Example -1'
RETURN
ENDIF

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PHASE 2 :
The user variable function is then called with INIT flag set to "1". This is the
second phase in which all user variables have to be initialized to their starting
values. This is called at the first step in the list of steps which are being tracked
(ISTEP equals to the starting step) for each node/element in the object.
IF(INIT.EQ.1) THEN
VAR2(1)= (STS(1)+STS(2)+STS(3))/3.
VAR2(2)=EFEPS
VAR2(3)=0.0
VAR2(4)=0.0
VAR2(5)=0.0
RETURN
ENDIF
If the initial value of a variable is zero the this is defined using the following code
(Here variable 5 is used)
VAR2(5) = 0.
If the maximum value of a variable is being tracked (for example temperature)
then this value can be set to (Here variable 5 is used).
VAR2(5) = -10000
and then checked and increased if temperature at any step is greater than this.

PHASE 3 :
The user variable function is called with the INIT flag set to "2" in the phase in
which all calculations of the user variables are done. This function is called for all
steps for each node/element of the object and the user is expected to update the
values of the state variables based on the inputs passed to this program. The
inputs to the function are :
TNOW : CURRENT Time
RZ : Element center Coord. (Dimension : 2 )
TEMP : Temperature
EFEPS : Effective Strain Rate
TEPS : Total accumulated Strain
EFSTS : Effective Stress
DAMG : Damage Factor
RDTY : Relative Density
STS : Stress Tensor (Dimension : 4 )
EPS : Strain Rate Tensor (Dimension : 4 )
TSR : Strain tensor
VAR1(1-20) : Initial State Variables
IOBJ : Object number
NUMNP : Total number of nodes
NUMEL : Total number of elements
ICURNE : Current node/element (when INIT=2)
NOUTINE : Routine to be used USRPS1 .. USRPS20
The output from the functions to be given by the user :
VAR2(1-20) : Updated State Variables
1. In the example given below the maximum mean stress is stored in the first
variable, the maximum strain rate is stored in the second variable.
_ IF(INIT.EQ.2) THEN
STSM = (STS(1)+STS(2)+STS(3))/3.
IF(STSM.GT.VAR1(1)) THEN

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VAR2(1)=STSM
ELSE
VAR2(1)=VAR1(1)
ENDIF
IF(EFEPS.GT.VAR1(2)) THEN
VAR2(2)=EFEPS
ELSE
VAR2(2)=VAR1(1)
ENDIF
VAR2(3) = VAR1(3)
VAR2(4) = VAR1(4)
VAR2(5) = VAR1(5)
ENDIF
_
In the statement to check for INIT = 2, each user variable is checked with some
criterion, if it meets this then the value is updated, else the new value is set the
same as the previous value VAR1. It is very important that if the value is not
updated, the value is set to the VAR1 value as this allows tracking of variables
across remeshing steps where data is interpolated from an old mesh to a new
mesh.
Since this calculation is done for each step and for each node/element the code
should be written efficiently. You should not open close files for each subroutine
call as this can degrade performance. The /DATA/ statements in FORTRAN can
be used to store parameters and the /COMMON/ block fields can be used to hold
static data. If files are to be opened then use UNIT numbers from 91..99 for
opening these files as opening other unit numbers might clash with files opened
in other parts of the program.
The mesh number should always be incremented when there is a change in the
mesh. If a remeshing step has been purged from a database then user-variable
tracking will not work with the database.

Compiling post-processing user routines on UNIX machines
After the code has been modified the new TEXT based post-processor and the
shared dynamic library for the GUI post-processor have to be generated using
the INSTALL3D program which is located in the > build_pst This builds a new
copy of the post-processor DEF_PST3.SL in the local directory, a shared library
that can be used with the GUI post-processor.
After this process is completed then the new variables can be accessed from the
GUI post-processors. In the GUI based post-processor, when tracking of user
variables is done, a post-processor database (PDB) is generated for the values
of the tracked variables. If the same data is to be viewed again in the post-
processor, after loading the database, the post-processor database can be
loaded to view the data. This saves the time required to track these variables
again.

Running the modified post-processor in UNIX
The GUI post-processor looks for the shared library DEF_PST3.SL first in the
current working directory then in the users HOME directory under the

253

subdirectory DEFORM3 and then in the DEFORM3_DIR/USR directory. It reads
this shared library and displays the list of existing variables which can be tracked.
In User Variables dialog the routine number, the object for which tracking is to be
done, and the option to track at the node or element can be selected to carry out
tracking. Once tracking is carried out all the data is stored in a post-processor
database (PDB) file. Variables can then be plotted by selecting the variables in
the State Variables menu.

Compiling post-processing user routines on Windows machines

The recommended way in which to do this is to use the online facility available
through the SFTC web site. To learn more about this, please consult the
previous section on user-defined FEM routines.

To generate the .dll file directly using AbSoft, please use the instruction below:

Requirements
- ABSOFT Pro Fortran 7.0 or above (version 7.0, 7.5 or 8.0)

FILES PROVIDED BY SFTC:
1. Files needed by the project
- Pstusr3.f
- PC_pstusr3.f
- PC_pstusr3.als
- PC_pstusr3.xps

2. Project file
- USR_DEF_PST3.gui

PROCEDURE

Synopsis:

Compile USR_DEF_PST3.gui to generate a Dynamic-Link Library ---
USR_DEF_PST3.dll

Procedure:

If you can find Compile_DEF_PST_USR.bat in current directory, user routine post
processor can be compiled by double click on that batch file.

To generate USR_DEF_PST3.dll follow these steps:
1. Double click USR_DEF_PST3.gui (USR_DEF_PST3_Absoft70.gui for
Absoft 7.0 compiler), Absoft Pro Fortran compiler will open automatically.
2. Click on icon or in the menu bar Click “ToolsBuild”, to build

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USR_DEF_PST3.dll.
3. After finishing with the set up of the project, customize pstusr3.f and rebuild
USR_DEF_PST3.gui.
4. Copy USR_DEF_PST3.dll to the DEFORM3D/v5_1Usr directory.

255

Quick Reference

General
This is a quick reference guide for common DEFORM forming simulations.
It gives a quick overview for the most common problem types. For
problems that are not covered here, refer to the online help manual, or
contact Scientific Forming technical support at (614) 451-8330.
Simulations are divided into cold forming, hot forming, and die stress.

Cold Forming

When simulating cold forming, it is important to simulate all steps of the process,
since the work hardening effects of early steps can influence behavior of later
steps. The procedure for simulating a multi-station process is detailed at the end
of this section.

1. Create a new problem folder (directory)
Each DEFORM problem should reside in its own folder. However, a given
problem may contain many operations, all in the same database file.

2. Start the DEFORM preprocessor

3. Set Basic Simulation Controls

a. Problem Title (optional)
Descriptive title for the problem – will be displayed on the screen
during pre- and post-processing.
b. Unit System
Select English or SI units. This will change many default values and
affect how material data is imported.

c. Select Simulation Mode
For cold, isothermal simulations, deformation mode should be
turned on (yes), heat transfer and all other modes should be turned
off.

4. Define the Material

Define Plastic material properties for the work piece material. Material
data can be loaded from the DEFORM material database. Be careful to
select a material with data in the temperature range you will be simulating.

256

5. Define the Work piece

a. Define Object Type
For most simulations, plastic object type is suitable.

b. Define the Geometry
Geometry can be defined from an STL file, or by entering table
data.

Work piece geometry requirements:
 Geometry normals must always face outward
 Always check the geometry.

6. Mesh the Object
Typical progressions should use element sizes representative of the
geometric detail of the part. When in doubt, more elements will tend to
give more accurate results.
Typical weights:
 Curvature=0.9
 Strain Rate=0.7
 Strain =0.5
 Temp=0

7. Define Boundary Conditions
Symmetric planes should be defined either with a velocity boundary
condition or with a symmetry boundary condition.

8. Define the Tools
a. Assign Tool Names (optional)
For reference during pre- and post-processing.

b. Define Tool Geometry
Import or define geometry for the punch and die. The geometry
rules detailed above for the work piece all apply. Furthermore:
 For multi-piece tools, draw a single tool boundary defining all
inserts, knockouts, etc. The geometry can be separated later
for die stress analysis. Refer to the manual or contact tech
support if there is more than one moving tool for a given
station.
 Extend the tool geometry slightly across the centerline.
 For tools with a sliding clearance between the punch and
die, increase the OD of the punch to slightly intersect the die.
Refer to the manual or training material for more details
 Put a slight flat on the tip of any pointed punches.
 While it is not strictly necessary, it is convenient to make
object 2 the punch or moving object.

257

c. Define Press Movement for the Punch
In general, press speed will not influence simulation results for cold
forming simulations. A constant press speed of 10 in/sec or
250mm/sec is generally adequate. Set the direction (typically
downward for punch on top). The stroke value should generally not
be changed by the user.

9. Define Inter-object Data

a. Inter-Object Relationships
The work piece should be slave to both tools. For well lubricated
cold forming, a friction factor of 0.08 is reasonable.

b. Object Positioning
Using interference, with the work piece as the reference object,
position both tools in contact with the work piece. For extremely
small parts, a smaller interference tolerance may be necessary to
prevent excessive tool-work piece overlap.

c. Generate Contact Boundary Conditions
The default value of tolerance is adequate.

10. Complete Simulation Controls

a. Define Number of Steps
 For very limited deformation such as a square-up, use 50 steps
 For average deformation, such as heading, use 100 steps
 For problems with a large amount of deformation, such as
extrusion, use 200 steps
 Save every 5 to 10 steps.

b. Select the Primary Die
Enter the object number for the punch(generally object #2)

c. Calculate the Stroke per Step

Estimate the distance the punch will move (total stroke). Divide this
value by the number of steps, and enter this value in Stroke per
Step. If you are unsure of total punch stroke, add 10 or 15 extra
steps. This will overshoot the goal, and you can back up a few
steps to get the final result.

d. Set stopping controls (optional)
If you know the exact distance the punch will move, enter this value

258

under stopping controls. If no value was entered, the simulation will
stop when all steps have been completed.

e. Set sub stepping control
Under Advanced Step Controls, set Strain per Step to 0.025.

11. Save the Data
Save a Keyword file. Go to Database Generation. Check the data. If there
are any yellow or red flags, resolve them, then generate the database. Exit
the preprocessor and start the simulation.

12. Running a Second Operation
a. Identifying the endpoint of the first operation
After the simulation is completed, go to the Post-Processor, and
check the results. Identify the step at which the first operation will
be completed, and make a note of this step number.

b. Loading Simulation Results Into the Preprocessor.
Return to the preprocessor, and load the appropriate step from the
database.

c. Changing Tool Geometry
Go to the Geometry editor, delete the tool geometry (not the whole
object), and import or create new tool geometry for each tool.

d. Positioning Objects
From Inter-object reposition the tools against the work piece using
interference.

e. Generate Contact
Initialize and generate contact boundary conditions.

f. Reset Simulation Controls
Determine total steps and stroke per step as described above.

g. Reset Stopping Stroke
If the stroke stopping control was used, reset the stroke to zero on
object movement controls, and reset the stopping control under
simulation controls.

h. Write The Database
Writing an old database will append data to the end of the existing
database. It will overwrite any steps after the step that was loaded.

i. If the appropriate ending step is not saved…..
If you encounter a situation where, say, step 90 is not formed

259

enough, step 100 is formed too much, and there are no steps
saved in between, you can load step 90, change the save interval
to 1 (save every step), then rerun the last 10 steps of the simulation
to get the proper stopping step.

Hot Forming
When simulating hot forming, it is important to simulate all steps of the process
including transfer from the furnace, and resting on the die, since the temperature
loss due to transfer from the furnace and from die chilling can influence flow
behavior. The procedure for simulating a multi-station process is detailed at the
end of this section. This section will outline the setup procedure for the following
operations:
1) Set uniform object temperature to simulate full furnace soak.
2) Cool in air to simulate transfer from the furnace to the dies
3) Rest on dies
4) Forge
5) Repeat for multiple forging blows

1. Create a new problem folder (directory)
Each DEFORM problem should reside in its own folder. However, a given
problem may contain many operations, all in the same database file.

2. Start the DEFORM preprocessor

3. Set Basic Simulation Controls
The simulation controls will be set for the first operation – simulating chilling
during the transfer from the furnace to the press.

a. Problem Title (optional)
Descriptive title for the problem – will be displayed on the screen during pre- and
post-processing.

b. Operation Name
Operation name

c. Unit System
Select English or SI units. This will change many default values and affect how
material data is imported.

d. Select Simulation Mode
For simulating transfer of the work piece from the furnace to the press, only heat
transfer will be modeled, so turn on heat transfer, and turn off deformation.

4. Define the Material
Define thermal properties for the material. For most steels, the files

260

STEEL_E.KEY or STEEL_S.KEY contain reasonable thermal properties. These
files can be loaded from the Material Properties menu on the main preprocessor
window.

5. Define the Work piece
a. Define Object Type
For most simulations, plastic object type is suitable.

b. Define the Geometry
Geometry can be defined from an STL file.
Work piece geometry requirements:
Geometry must be defined with normals facing outward
Always check the geometry.

c. Mesh the Object
Typical progressions should use element sizes that represent the features of the
part. When in doubt, more elements will tend to give more accurate results.
Typical weights:
 Curvature=0.9
 Strain Rate=0.7
 Strain =0.5
 Temp=0

d. Define Thermal Boundary Conditions
For solid parts, define heat exchange with the environment on all faces except
the symmetry surfaces.

e. Initialize Object Temperature
Set the initial object temperature to the furnace soak or preheat temperature.


A typical transfer operation can be simulated in 10 to 20 steps.

Enter object 1 (only object defined) as the primary die.

c. Calculate the Time per Step
Divide the total transfer time by the number of steps.

7. Save the Data
Save a Keyword file. Go to Database Generation. Check the data. If there are
any yellow or red flags, resolve them, then generate the database. Exit the
preprocessor and start the simulation.

261

8. Loading Simulation Results Into the Preprocessor to Define Second
Operation
Return to the preprocessor, and load the last step from the database.

9. Define Material Data for the tools
Specify thermal data for the tool material

10. Define the Tools

a. Assign Tool Names (optional)
For reference during pre- and post-processing.

b. Define Tool Geometry
Import or define geometry for the upper die (punch) and lower die. The geometry
rules detailed above for the work piece all apply. Furthermore:
For multi-piece tools, draw a single tool boundary defining all inserts, knockouts,
etc. The geometry can be separated later for die stress analysis. Refer to the
manual or contact tech support if there is more than one moving tool for a given
station.
Extend the tool geometry slightly across the centerline.
For tools with a sliding clearance between the punch and die, increase the OD of
the punch to slightly intersect the die. Refer to the manual or training material for
more details
Put a slight flat on the tip of any pointed punches.
While it is not strictly necessary, it is convenient to make object 2 the punch or
moving object.

c. Mesh the Tools
Use around 400 elements. Use user defined density with 3 at the contact surface
and 1 on the back side of the die.

d. Assign Tool Material
Be sure the proper material is assigned to both the tools and the work piece

e. Assign Tool Temperature
Set the uniform tool temperature before forming begins.


The work piece should be slave to both tools. The interface heat transfer
coefficient should be about 0.004 for English units, or 10 for SI units.

Using interference positioning, position the work piece on the bottom die. Leave
the top die away from the work piece during this operation.

262

The default value of tolerance is adequate.


A typical die resting operation can be simulated in 10 to 20 steps.

Enter object 1 as the primary die.

c. Calculate the Time per Step
Divide the total transfer time by the number of steps.

d. Define Operation Name (optional)

13. Save the Data
Save a Keyword file. Go to Database Generation. Check the data. If there are
any yellow or red flags, resolve them, then generate the database. Exit the

14. Loading Simulation Results Into the Preprocessor to Define Forming
Operation
Return to the preprocessor, and load the last step from the database.

15. Set Simulation Controls

a. Operation Name (optional)

b. Select Simulation Mode
We will now simulate the forging operation, so turn deformation on (yes)

16. Define Material Data for Work piece

Assign plastic (flow) data for the work piece material. Be sure the material
selected covers the proper temperature range, including any deformation
heating and die chilling.

17. Assign Top Die (punch) Movement

Press behavior may play a role in results. Consult the manual or SFTC tech
support for more information on press behavior. Set the direction (typically
downward). The stroke value should not be changed
unless a mechanical press model is used.

263


Assign a friction factors. For lubricated hot forging, values of 0.2 to 0.3 are
typical. For non-lubricated hot forging, values of 0.8 to 1.0 are typical.

Using interference, with the work piece as the reference object, position both
tools in contact with the work piece.

The default value of tolerance is generally adequate


a. Define the Number of Steps
For very limited deformation, such as a square-up or buster, use 50 steps
For average deformation, such as heading, use 100 steps
For problems with a large amount of deformation, such as extrusion, 200 or more
steps are appropriate.

b. Assign the Primary Die
The top die (or punch) should be the primary die. This will generally be object #2.

c. Calculate the Stroke per Step
Estimate the distance the top die will move (from the point it contacts the work
piece). Divide this value by the number of steps, and enter this value in Stroke
per Step. If you are unsure of total punch stroke, add 10 or 15 extra steps. This
will overshoot the goal, and you can back up a few steps to get the ending shape

d. Set Stopping Controls (optional)

If you know the exact distance the punch will move, enter this value under
stopping controls. If no value was entered, the simulation will stop when all steps
have been completed.

e. Set sub stepping control
Under Advanced Step Controls, set Strain per Step to 0.025

20. Save the Data

Save a keyword file. Go to Database generation, Check the data. If there are any
yellow or red flags, resolve them, then generate the database. Exit the

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21. Running a Second Operation

a. Identifying the endpoint of the first operation
After the simulation is completed, go to the Post-Processor, and check the
results. Identify the step at which the first operation will be completed, and make
a note of this step number.

b. Loading Simulation Results Into the Preprocessor.
Return to the preprocessor, and load the appropriate step from the database.

c. Simulate Chilling During Transfer to Next Station
Consider the transfer time between stations. Refer to the beginning of this
section for guidelines on running heat transfer simulations.

d. Changing Tool Geometry
Go to the Geometry editor, delete the tool geometry (not the whole object), and
import or create new tool geometry for each tool.

e. Positioning Objects
From Inter-object reposition the tools against the work piece using interference.

f. Generate Contact
Initialize and generate contact boundary conditions.

g. Reset Simulation Controls
Determine total steps and stroke per step as described above.

h. Reset Stopping Stroke
If the stroke stopping control was used, reset the stroke to zero on object
movement controls, and reset the stopping control under simulation controls.

i. Write The Database
Writing an old database will append data to the end of the existing database. It
will overwrite any steps after the step that was loaded.

j. If the appropriate ending step is not saved…..
If you encounter a situation where, say, step 90 is not formed enough, step 100
is formed too much, and there are no steps saved in between, you can load step
90, change the save interval to 1 (save every step), then rerun the last 10 steps
of the simulation
to get the proper stopping step.

265

Appendices

These appendices are topical treatment of specific information concerning
DEFORM. In the future, these subjects may be shuffled into the main content of
the manual and other information may be added in its place. The topics may be
updated by other methods and may become out of date. Please contact
Scientific Forming Technologies Corporation if there are any questions on the
current status of any information.

266

Appendix A: Running DEFORM in text mode

DEFORM contains text based modules which can be used to set up and run
simulations in automatic mode without going through the graphic user interface
(GUI).

The text based preprocessor DEF_PRE.EXE can be used to assemble input data
and generate a DEFORM database. It contains most of the same functionality of
the graphic interface.

The job can be submitted by calling the simulation control script
DEF_ARM_CTL.COM.

Assembling input data

The preprocessor can be controlled by redirecting a text input control file to the
following program.

C:deform2dv5_1DEF_PRE.EXE < DEF_PRE_INP.txt

Where DEF_PRE_INP.txt contains the following lines:

<CR>
2
1
DEF_COMMANDS.KEY
<CR>
E
E
Y
<CR>

Which are the user inputs if the text based system were run in interactive mode.

The file DEF_COMMANDS.KEY contains a series of “Action Keywords” which
trigger the preprocessor to perform a series of options. (The file name is the
users choice). Action keywords are documented separately. It also can contain
standard keywords to define simulation controls (time stepping, stopping
controls, etc).

An important function of action keywords is to trigger the input of other keyword
files, which can include geometry definition, boundary conditions, etc.

267

Sample contents of the DEF_COMMANDS.KEY file. Contents of an actual file
will be defined by the user.

KFREAD
DEFAULT.KEY
CURSIM 1
SIMNAM
Solution
DTMAX 0.001
DTPMAX 10 0.01 100
STPINC 10
KFREAD
DEF_MESH.KEY
KFREAD
DEF_EDGE_BCF.KEY
NDTMP 1 0 70.0
TMAX 10800
ENVTMP 2130
KFREAD
AIR_BC.KEY
USRSUB 1 1
GENDB 2
DEFORM_DEMO.DB

This file:
Reads DEFAULT.KEY which contains default problem settings
Sets the operation number to 1
Sets temperature sub stepping and save increment
Reads DEF_MESH.KEY
Reads DEF_EDGE_BCF.KEY which contains boundary condition definitions
Sets the temperature of all nodes to 70 degrees
Sets simulation time
Sets environment temperature
Loads AIR_BC.KEY which contains convection coefficients for air
Defines a user subroutine to be used
Generates a database called DEFORM_DEMO.DB.

Brief Introduction to Keywords

There are two different types of keywords that can be read by the Preprocessor:
Input keywords and Action keywords. Input keywords contain data that is directly
used as data for a simulation. This can be a geometry definition, convection
coefficient values, or other such data. Action keywords perform certain
operations when the Preprocessor is reading the data. For example, the

268

keyword KFREAD tells the Preprocessor to read the next line into the
Preprocessor as a keyword file. This is quite useful for segregating data into
different keyword files and being able to load them in a modular manner into the
Preprocessor. The most commonly used Action keywords are KFREAD
(keyword file reading), DBREAD (database file reading), GENCTC (generate
contact based on proximity distance to dies), and GENDB (generate database).
All the keywords are referenced with their specification method in the keyword
reference.

Help For Optimization Users

In the case where optimization being performed, many simulations have to be
run sequentially. In this case it means that the input data will have to change
each time a simulation is run. This can be done by segregating the data into
different keyword files and loading the all together at the initialization phase. For
example, consider the case where the heat flux is different between each
simulation. As long as that is the only difference between each run, the initial
data can be stored in a keyword file and the heat flux data can be stored in
another keyword file (or created on the fly by the optimization script). This can
be done in a few easy steps:

1. Define the simulation and save it in a keyword without the heat flux definition.
2. Read the definition of heat flux in the keyword manual (keyword: ECHFLX).
3. Define a keyword file with the heat flux data. An easy cheat would be to
define it in the graphical preprocessor, save it to a keyword file, extract it from the
saved keyword, and modify it as necessary during run time.
4. Run a simple script file as above that loads in both keyword files and
generates a database.

Running a Simulation

A simulation can be executed by running it directly from the command line calling
the DEF_ARM_CTL.COM simulation control script.

The inputs are

DEF_ARM_CTL.COM problem_id B
Where problem_id is the database file name, with the .DB extension stripped. In
the case above, we would run the simulation for DEF_DEMO.DB with the line:

F:DEFORM3D5_1DEF_ARM_CTL.COM DEFORM_DEMO B

The B indicates that the simulation should be run in Batch mode.

269

Extracting the Results

There are two ways of performing this action: the text-based Preprocessor and
the text-based Postprocessor. Which one is used depends on the desired
output. The most brute-force but straightforward operation is to open the text-
based preprocessor, load the last step of the database and save the data as a
keyword file. This keyword file can then be parsed for any required information
such as node temperatures (keyword: NDTMP). The action keyword that allows
the user to read a database file is DBREAD and the action keyword that allows
the user to write a keyword file out is KFWRIT that is specified the same manner
as the KFREAD keyword. The keyword file can be read as in the case of
assembling the input data as such:

DBREAD 0
DEFORM_DEMO.DB
KFWRIT
OUTPUT.KEY

The DEF_PRE_INP.txt would be the same where the DEF_COMMANDS.KEY
file would contain the four lines above. The last step of the database would be
read and stored in the keyword file named OUTPUT.KEY.

270

Appendix B: Inserting DEFORM™ Animations in Powerpoint
Presentations

{Based on Powerpoint 97 running on Windows 98 platform – other variations may
be slightly different}

Legend:
[Comments in square brackets (parentheses) are instructions]
Underlined comments are actual key strokes

The Process:

[Arrange suitable directory structure, for example, POWERPOINT file in same
directory as DEFPLAY.EXE and presentation files in subdirectories immediately
below]

[Open POWERPOINT file and go to page where animation is to be inserted]
insert objectcreate from filebrowse [find DEFPLAY.EXE in the browse window
and select it] ok [locate new object icon on page (perhaps drag it to the bottom
left corner)]

[right click on icon]
edit package package objectedit command line… [type “DEFPLAY.EXE
presentation_file_full_path –e”]
okfile updatefile exit
[where “presentation_file_full_path” is for example:
“d:workpresentationextrudeextrude.pre”]

action settingsmouse clickaction on clicknone
action settingsmouse overaction on mouse overnone

custom animationtimingstart animationanimate1 seconds after previous event
[1 seconds is optional]
custom animationeffectsentry animation and soundno effect
custom animationchart effectsnone
custom animationplay settingsobject actionactivate contents [check box “hide
while not playing”] ok

[save powerpoint file:] filesave

[Some platform/powerpoint version combinations may give warnings of OLE

271

object that may contain viruses; this may be removed by:]
toolsoptionsgeneralgeneral options [uncheck box “macro virus protection”]

272

Appendix C: DETAILS OF MOVEMENT CONTROLS IN SPIN.KEY

Axis 1

Axis 2

Figure 156: Tool arrangement in SPIN.KEY

Introduction:

The file SPIN.KEY is located in the DATA subdirectory of the DEFORM3D
installation. This appendix is a write-up for how the movement controls were
defined for that case.

Movement controls for spinning.

Work piece is held stationary. Tool spins around Axis 2.

Tool is initially located along X axis.

Tool translational movement towards or away from Axis2 is defined along the X
axis. As the tool rotates around Axis2, the direction of translational movement is
adjusted so that it is always towards/away from Axis2. (Figure 2 illustrates the
updating of this velocity vector).

273

Movement in the Z axis is accomplished by simultaneously moving the mandrel
and tailstock.

Non-linear tool movement can be achieved by decomposing the movement path
into Vx(t) and Vz(t). The Vx(t) function is assigned to the tool, and Vz(t) is
assigned to the tailstock & mandrel.

The angular velocity of the spin tool should be defined such that the relative
velocity between the work piece and tool is zero at the point of contact. Thus
r1 1  r2  2
where 1 is the angular velocity of the work piece (or the tool about the work
piece in the simulation) and 2 is the angular velocity of the tool about it’s own
axis. r2 is the radius of the contact point from the center of the work piece, and r1
is the work piece.

Figure 157: Automatic updating of radial velocity defined along an axis.

274

Appendix D: Data Files

Below is a comprehensive list of data files that can influence the behavior of a
solution as well as a brief description of their purpose.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LAY.DAT

This data file is used for mesh consolidation for cogging simulations.

STRETCH.DAT

This data file is used to activate the check of a surface edge stretch to determine
if a remeshing is needed.

AXIS.DAT

This data file allows the user to perform special options on rotating work piece
simulations.

STNCMP.DAT

This file allows the user to turn off strain component interpolation.

SW2SP.DAT

This file allows the user to specify the maximum number of elements which the
solver can use the Sparse solver. The purpose of this is to control the size of the
problem where the sparse solver can be used since it requires more memory
than the C-G solver. In the case where sparse solver is not used, the simulation
will only use the C-G solver. This option should only be enabled for cases where
the C-G solver can be used, i.e. single deforming plastic work piece with no load
controlled dies.

NBC.DAT

This file allows the user to enable multiple contact conditions on nodes in die
corners. This eliminates nodal oscillation in die corners.

275

ALE.DAT

This triggers the steady state solution method to be used during the simulation.

SPRING.INI

This file allows the user to enable the usage of spring-loaded dies.

SPRING2.INI

This file allows the reversible spring loading direction to be specified.

DEF_RSE.DAT

This file allows to enable special features of the Rigid Super-Element scheme to
be used during a simulation.

276

Appendix E: 2D to 3D Conversion Utility

Purpose:

Maps 2D geometry and all process variables from 2D database to 3D keyword
file.

How it works:

3D elements are created directly from 2D elements. In the case of axisymmetric
simulations, the elements are revolved about an axis and for plane strain, the
elements are extruded along an axis. For either case, the user has the option of
Brick (8 node) or Tetrahedral (4 node) elements. If there are a large number of
2D element it is recommended to use manual remeshing to remesh the 2D object
with 100-400 elements. After this, interpolate the state variable. Generate a
database step with the new data. The new step will be negative, which you will
specify in the conversion utility.

How to run:

Unix:

From a command prompt, type M23

NT:

Open a DOS command window and change to the problem directory (cd
deform3dproblem….).

a. Run the M23.COM utility deform3dv51M23.COM

b. <Enter Problem ID without extension > (e.g. SPIKE)

c. Enter 3d keyword file name [SPIKE_3.KEY] hit <CR> to accept default

d Enter Step Number May be negative

277

e. Enter Object Number

f. Enter number of nodes (4 nodes - tets recommended)
g. Enter number of 3D planes to be created >

h 3D elements are created by sweeping 2D plane about a common axis to
create wedges

i. Enter sweep angle >

j. Total angle

k. Enter node centerline tolerance

l. Used to decide which nodes are centerline nodes - measurement should be
made in 2D pre or post processor.

m. Select variables to copy onto 3D mesh

n. Defaults should be appropriate in most cases

278

Appendix F: Fracture with Element Deletion and Damage
Softening

Fracture within DEFORM-3D is now available. To implement this, only a few
settings are required. The first setting that is required is the critical damage
value for fracture. This is specified within the material properties window ->
Advanced tab (See Figure 158). Within this window the damage criteria can be
specified. By clicking the data window icon next to the criteria, a critical value
can be input to the system (See Figure 159). The critical value to use is very
dependent on the material being used, the processing methods to produce the
material, deformation history, etc…. The recommended way in which to use the
critical value is to either determine the absolute critical value for fracture based
on a known process or to reduce the damage value of a given simulated process.

Figure 158: The advanced material window.

To implement only a critical damage value will enable damage softening.
Damage softening is a method by which the flow stress of an element above this
critical value will by reduced to a very low value. The advantage of this approach
above element deletion is that the topology of part is maintained and is simple

279

thus producing a good-looking result. To enable element deletion proceed to the
object->properties and set the number fracture elements (See Figure 160).

Comparison of two methods:

The two methods for simulating fracture are compared in the following example.
The example case is a gear piercing as seen in Figure 161. Figure 162, Figure
163 and Figure 164 show the results of using both damage softening and
element deletion.

Figure 159: The critical value for fracture.

280

Figure 160: Fracture settings window.

Figure 161: Gear piercing case that is a good candidate for fracture study.

281

Figure 162: Beginning and near ending step of gear piercing with element deletion.

Figure 163: Beginning and near ending step of gear piercing with damage softening.

282

Figure 164: Side-by-side comparison of piercing operations with element deletion and
damage softening.

283

Appendix G: Rotating Work piece Simulations

In many cases now there are new methods that are much more efficient. Please
contact SFTC for more information.

In this, special techniques for spinning work piece simulations are discussed.
Among the applications that this would cover would be cross-rolling simulations
(See Figure 165).

Figure 165: Cross-rolling diagram.

In the above case, there is a problem when the work piece rotates. The problem
occurs due to the nature of updating nodal position based on integrating velocity
over a time increment. The simple process of updating based on instantaneous
velocity over a discrete time interval can cause an increase of the diameter of the
work piece. As seen in Figure 166, all the nodal velocities are perpendicular to
the radius where they are located. Thus, simply updating the coordinates based
directly on their velocity will incur an increase in radius and in volume as well.

284

Figure 166: Velocity profile of a rotating body.

Another issue that may arise in simulations where the work piece is turning
based on friction at very localized regions of the surface (particularly thread-
rolling cases). The work piece may tend to slide rather than be rotated. This
arises due to sparse contact that can occur between the tool and the work piece.
The sparse contact arises when the work piece has a coarse mesh definition or
when the tool geometry is coarsely defined.

Currently, there exists a number of different solutions for handling these types of
problems. These solutions are listed below.

G1. Moving tools about a non-spinning work piece

Motivation: Although in the reality the work piece rotates during deformation, it
may be advantageous to not allow the work piece to rotate and let the tools move
about it. This will not change the nature of deformation, but has the following
advantages: (1) Since the work piece does not spin, the increase in volume is
avoided; and (2) flow-net can be used in post-processing.

Cartesian coordinates vs. cylindrical coordinates: For most of the cases, it is
straightforward to specify the orbiting movement in the Cartesian coordinate
system for a rotating tool, which orbits like a planetary gear. The user has to
define the first and second rotations. However, when there is a tool translation
that is not parallel to the second rotational axis, it is convenient to use a
cylindrical coordinate system for the tool. We will only elaborate the latter case in
this section.

285

Examples: (1) spinning with a roller, if the user wants to fix the work piece and to
rotate the roller (Figure 167) , and (2) thread rolling between two flat dies, if the
user wants to fix the work piece and to rotate the two flat dies (Figure 165).

How to Implement: If the following conditions are all met, DEFORM-3D will
adopt the cylindrical coordinate for that object:

Figure 167: Description of rotational axis definitions and angle definitions (derived from
angular velocity values) for this case.

1. The first rotational axis and the second rotational axis are defined and they
are apart from each other.

2. The translational movement is non-zero in the direction non-parallel to the
second rotational axis.

These values are defined in the Rotational Movement window. As seen in Figure
167, the first axis is the axis of the rotating tool and the second axis
superimposes with the axis for the non-rotating work piece. The first rotational
axis defines the rotational properties of the tool about it's own axis. If the tool
does not spin about its own axis, as in a cross-rolling simulation, the axis center
should be specified far from the work piece axis. The second rotational axis
defines the rotational properties of tool about the axis of the work piece.

286

(For Example 2, the user needs to define the first rotational axis far away, say,
1.e6, but it is not used in calculation. In the DATA directory of DEFORM3D is an
example file known as CROSS_ROLL.KEY.
This is a simple cross-rolling example showing an example of how the tools can
move about the
work piece in order to simulate cross-rolling without rotating the work piece).

As a note:

 The initial position of this object is always used as a reference. The
“Current Angle” in the Rotational Movement window should be zero at
Step –1 and will be updated by the system at the end of every step or sub-
step. The user should not change its value in a later step in the pre-
processor without changing the position of this object accordingly.
 The direction of the translational movement of this object is defined with
respect to this reference position only. It will not be changed in a later
step even the object rotates about the second rotational axis. The stroke
will be updated in the same way.

In the case of two rotational axes, when the axes are parallel, the angular
velocities are defined as follows (seen in Figure 168):

2 = (r1/r2) 1

Figure 168: Two rotating bodies with parallel axes.

287

Otherwise, when the axes are at an angle to each other, such as in the case of
orbital forming, the angular velocities are defined as (seen in Figure 169):

2 = - 1 cos 

Figure 169: A rotating body with two non-parallel axes.

G2. Spinning Work piece

There are some features used to model the deformation of a rotating work piece
with DEFORM-3D. They are under testing and have yet been officially added to
DEFORM-3D. However, the user may activate these features when necessary
by defining a data file "AXIS.DAT" in the working directory of a simulation. The
options and contents of AXIS.DAT are explained as follows. This functionality
works for a single rigid-plastic object and rigid tools only.

Here is the outline of AXIS.DAT file structure as described on a line-by-line basis.
Each line is data that define how this feature will work for the current simulation.
Once this file is created and placed in the current directory that is running a
simulation, it will be read by DEFORM and applied to the simulation. Caution:
When finished using this file in a simulation, be careful to not run another
simulation that does not require it as DEFORM will use this and may cause
an errant simulation. Either rename or delete the file before running
another simulation in the same directory.

There are two functionalities that are available in this feature: Coordinate
updating based on rotational motion and enforced rotational motion of the work
piece. These two features (modes) can be enabled either separately or
simultaneously depending on the mode set in the AXIS.DAT file. The rest of the

288

data defines certain options on how these modes apply to the current case. Here
is a line by-by-line description of the file.

Line 1: KOBJAX - Object number (an integer)

Line 2: Mode – An integer value that determines which function this feature
should use.

Line 3: RAXIS(1),RAXIS(2),RAXIS(3) (3 real numbers)
Direction vector parallel to the axis of rotation. These components are
unitless.

Line 4: ORGN(1),ORGN(2),ORGN(3) (3 real numbers)
A point that lies on the axis of rotation. This point can be any point on the
central axis. The units for each component is mm for SI simulations and
inches for the english unit system.

Line 5: RADCTR,OMECTR (2 real numbers)
RADCTR is the radius of a specified central core about the rotational axis
for which rotational speed is fixed to the rotational speed of OMECTR.
The units of RADCTR is mm for SI simulations and inches for the english
unit system. The units of OMECTR is rad/s for SI and the english unit
system.

Line 6: XMIN, XMAX (2 real numbers; optional)
RADCTR, XMIN and XMAX define the dimensions of a cylinder within
which the nodes of object KOBJAX are forced to rotate about RAXIS at a
rotational velocity OMECTR. (See Figure 167).

Line 7: XMIN2, XMAX2 (2 real numbers; optional)
XMIN2 and XMAX2, if available, define a second cylinder with an infinite
radius within which the nodes of object KOBJAX are forced to rotate
about RAXIS, but the magnitude of the nodal velocity is the result of
simulation.

Notes on Line 2
Mode = 1 Enforces rotational update of nodal coordinates (This solves the
problem described
above with the volume increase).
Mode = 3 Part of object KOBJAX (defined below) is forced to spin
about an axis (defined by RAXIS) in addition to enforcement of
rotational updating.
Mode = 5 Part of object KOBJAX (defined below) is forced to spin

289

about an axis (defined by RAXIS) in addition to enforcement of
rotational updating, but the
consolidation technique is applied.

Notes on Line 5
If OMECTR = 0, the nodal updating direction is specified as rotational,
while the magnitude of each node velocity is the result of simulation (i.e.
rigid tool(s) will control the speed of the nodes).

If OMECTR != 0, XMIN and XMAX (discussed below) are defined as the
minimum and maximum bounds with respect to the axis and the origin
defined on Lines 2 and 3. So are XMIN2 and XMAX2, if any.

Figure 170: Outline of dimensions for central core.

Notes on Line 6

XMIN and XMAX, if available, are the axial bounds of the central core with
the respect to ORGN.

If Line 6 is not defined, the cylinder has an unlimited length and Line 7 is not
needed.

(Lines 5,6 and 7 are used only if Mode 3 is selected)

290

Option = 5 allows for the user to specify two independent cores that can drive
spinning.

Only new inputs are explained.
Line 1: KOBJAX - Object number (an integer)
Line 2: Option (an integer)
Option = 5 Part of object KOBJAX (defined below) is forced to spin
about an axis (defined by RAXIS) PLUS Option 1, but the
consolidation techinique is applied.
Line 3: RAXIS(1),RAXIS(2),RAXIS(3) (3 real numbers)
Direction vector defining the axis of rotation.
Line 4: ORGN(1),ORGN(2),ORGN(3) (3 real numbers)
Origin of the above axis.
Line 5: NUMSEC,ISECPL (2 integers)
NUMSEC = 1 or 2 -- How many rigid zones to be specified
ISECPL = 0: if NUMSEC = 1, nothing is implied
NUMSEC = 2, two zones are not coupled
ISECPL = 1: if NUMSEC = 2, two zones are coupled
INPUT FOR SECTION 1:
Line 6: RADCTR, OMECTR (2 real numbers)
PLEASE NOTE: The meaning of OMECTR is different than that in
Option 3:
If OMECTR is set to 1.e+12, the rotating direction is specified,
while the magnitude of each nodal velocity is the result of
simulation.
If OMECTR is set to 0, the part of work piece is fixed.

Line 7: XMIN, XMAX , VXMIN, VXMAX (4 real numbers; optional)
VXMIN is the speed of the left bounding point, XMIN
VXMAX is the speed of the right bounding point, XMAX
INPUT FOR SECTION 2, IF NUMSEC=2:
Line 6: RADCTR, OMECTR (2 real numbers)
PLEASE NOTE: The meaning of OMECTR is different than that in
Option 3:
If OMECTR is set to 1.e+12, the rotating direction is specified,
while the magnitude of each nodal velocity is the result of
simulation.
If OMECTR is set to 0, the part of work piece is fixed.

Line 7: XMIN, XMAX , VXMIN, VXMAX (4 real numbers; optional)
VXMIN is the speed of the left bounding point, XMIN
VXMAX is the speed of the right bounding point, XMAX

291

Note: When using a core region, the user should be cautious not to regard the
stress or strain within the core region as significant. This core region should be
far from the deformation area and in the case of simulations where there is
interest in the material at the central region of the spinning object, this method
cannot be used. Also, in order for the AXIS.DAT file to work properly in the latest
version of DEFORM-3D, a file named DEF_RSE.DAT containing a single 0
should also exist in the working directory.

292

Appendix H: Sheet Forming in DEFORM-3D

Due to advantages in modeling thin structures, the membrane or shell element
formulations are very popular in the simulation of sheet forming processes.
Although shell elements represent the stress variation through their thickness
effectively, they generally require special treatments for the drilling degree of
freedom and the transverse shear locking to preserve the Kirchhoff or Reissner-
Mindlin hypotheses. Thus, the shell formulation requires more complicated and
sophisticated procedures than solid element formulations. Moreover, shell
elements do not have the continuity of the thickness over the neighborhood
elements. A comprehensive comparison of solid and shell elements can be
found in the reference (Wriggers et. al. [1]). In the reference, the authors showed
the possibility of the application of solid elements for thin shell as well as thick
shell problems.

A brief coverage of the theory of anisotropy and assumed strain formulation will
be presented in the following sections. After this, specific information will be
provided on how to simulate accurate sheet forming applications within
DEFORM-3D.

Theory - Anisotropy

The associated flow rule with Hill'48 anisotropic yield criterion (Hill [2]) is used for
consideration of initial texture property of sheet metal. The flow potential for
orthotropy which conserves three symmetry planes are written in terms of the
stress ó as,

f  ó Pó  ó o   0 .
1 T 2
(1)
2

with

â 11 - â12 - â 13 0 0 0
- â 12 â 22 - â 23 0 0 0
-â - â 23 â 33 0 0 0
P  2 13 (2)
0 0 0 â 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 â 55 0
0 0 0 0 0 â 66
where ó T  ó xx , ó yy , ó zz , ó xy , ó yz , ó xz  and â 11  â 12  â13 ; â 22  â12  â 23 ;
â 33  â 13  â 23 (or 2â12  â11  â 22  â 33 ; 2â13  â11  â 22  â 33 ; 2â 23  â11  â 22  â 33 ).
Therefore, six independent parameters â11 , â 22 , â 33 , â 44 , â 55 , â 66 need to be defined

293

to characterize the anisotropic hardening state. ó o is an equivalent stress
representing the current yield surface size. The coefficients in P can be related to
the R-values (Valliappan et al. [3]). By setting â11  1 (this means the principal
anisotropic axis coincides the reference axis),
(R  R 90 )(1  2R 45 )
â12  ; â 13  ; â 23  ; â 44  0
R0 1 R0
. (3)
1 R0 1 R0 R 90 (1  R 0 ) R 90 (1  R 0 )
The remaining parameters, â 55 , â 66 , can not be determined by the uniaxial
tensile test. Generally the corresponding stresses have little effect on sheet metal
forming processes, the parameters are assumed to be equal to â 44 . It should be
noted that von-Mises isotropic yield criterion is recovered when three R-values,
R0, R45 R90 are set to be 1. Numerical implementation of Hill’48 yield criterion is
outlined below.
The additive decomposition of strain-rate into elastic and plastic parts is
employed together with the normality rule,

å  åe  åp ,
  
ó  Cå e ,
 
f
å p  ë(
  )  ëa .
 (4)
ó
where the superscripts e and p represent the elastic and plastic parts,
respectively. C is the elasticity tensor, ë is the plastic strain-rate multiplier and a

is the flow vector defined by
a = Pó . (5)
From Equations (4) and (5) with the consistency condition (6), the plastic
strain-rate multiplier can be expressed as below:
  f : ó  f ó o  0 ,
f    (6)
ó ó o
a T Cå
 T
 . (7)
a Ca  A iso
where A iso  2ó o H å p .

Finally, the rate form of the constitutive equation can be written as,
 Caa T C 
ó  C  T
  å  C ep å .
a Ca  A iso 
  (8)
 
It should be noted that the element stiffness matrix is directly related to the
tangent modulus C ep evaluated at each integration point, which governs the
convergence rate of the global iterative scheme. Thus the consistent tangent
modulus is essential to keep the quadratic rate of convergence in the Newton-
Raphson scheme (Simo and Taylor [4], Crisfield [5]).

294

Theory – Assumed Strain Formulation

A locking-free element is essential for the robustness of the finite element
method. Several versions of the reduced integration method using hourglass
control techniques have made remarkable progress on this issue (Belytschko
and Bachrach [6]; Hughes [7]; Belytschko et al. [8]). Li[9] and Jetteur[10]
proposed a strain field modification to avoid numerical instability. This paper was
based on the method proposed by Li [9]. The essential equations for the strain
field description can be written as follows.

å  åo  å h . (9)

where åo and åh are the constant and the non-constant terms of the
displacement gradient respectively. The non-constant terms can cause
undesirable locking, volumetric locking or hourglassing. To avoid these
undesirable effects, the modified normal strain part, Equation (11), is assumed to
be the same as Equation (12) in Equation (10).

å h  å n  ås  å d  ås . (10)

where
å n  u1,1 , u 2, 2 , u 3,3 ,0,0,0, (11)
å d  u1,1 , u 2 , 2 , u 3,3 ,0,0,0 , (12)
u i , j  u i , j  iju k , k /3 . (13)

Here, the repeated index is used to denote the summation

Possible shear locking in thin-structure analysis can be resolved on the element
level by adopting the the assumed transverse shear strain field (Sze and Yao
[11]; Kinkel et al. [12]). The transverse shear strains are interpolated from the
values evaluated at the mid-points of the element edges as below.

1  1 
       0,   1      0,   1 ,

2 2 (14)
1  1 
       

.
2   1,   0 2   1,   0

Simulation Principles

Some new features that allow for improved modeling of sheet forming processes

295

within DEFORM are anisotropy modeling and a new assumed strain formulation
for elasto-plastic models. When modeling a sheet forming process, the following
setup is recommended:

 Brick, elasto-plastic elements with an assumed strain formulation

 Consider if anisotropy should be added for better material modeling

Example: Square cup drawing process

As an example case, consider a square cup drawing process (See Figure 171).
The blank is made of an aluminum alloy with the following properties:

 Young’s Modulus: 70 GPa
 Poisson’s ratio: 0.3
   570.40 (0.01502   p )0.3469

The thickness of the blank is 0.81 mm and the area of the blank is 150 mm2 x
150 mm2. The blank holder force is 19.6 kN, the punch stroke is 40 mm and the
coefficient friction is 0.162. The deformation of the drawing process can be seen
in Figure 172 and Figure 173. This simulation correlates well to experimental
results as can be seen in Table 1. The deformed shape at 40mm punch stroke is
shown in Figure 1 and the amount of draw-in along the rolling (DX), transverse
(DY), and diagonal (DD) directions is compared with the average values of the
measurements in Table 1. Since an isotropic yield criterion was used for this
simulation, the predicted draw-in along two directions, DX and DY are almost
identical in the simulation. Numerical results are well correlated with the
measurement results.

296

Figure 171: Square cup drawing process.

Figure 172: Square cup object (a) before deformation and (b) after deformation.

297

Figure 173: Deformed shape in square cup drawing (aluminum alloy sheet, at 40 mm
punch stroke).

Measured point Measured Simulation
15* (DX,DY) 5.3 mm 5.5mm
15*(DD) 3.3 mm 3.3mm
40**(DX,DY) 28.5mm 26.9mm
40**(DD) 15.0mm 15.5 mm
Table 1: Draw-in distance. Note) * and ** denotes 15mm , 40mm punch stroke
respectively

Example: Cylindrical cup drawing process

This benchmark problem was proposed for NUMISHEET’99 (Benchmark B1-part 2),
designed to explore the anisotropic aspects of sheet metal forming processes, both from
experiments and numerical simulations [13]. Part I, which is omitted in this paper, refers
to a deep drawn cylindrical cup with a hemispherical punch free of any localized necking
or split according to the actual individual forming-limit curve. Part 2 is simulated under
given a constant blank holder condition.
The typical parameters for this simulation are summarized below:

 Blank thickness: 1.0 mm
 Drawing ratio: 2.0
 Constant BHF: 80 kN
 Drawing depth : 85 mm
 Material : DDQ (mild steel)
 R-values: R 0  1.73; R 45  1.23; R 90  2.02

298

The NUMISHEET’99 committee supplied tool geometries and material data for
DDQ(mild steel). The FE model for this benchmark is shown in Figure 174. The work
piece is an elasto-plastic material with the planar anisotropic yield criterion (Hill’48). The
earing shapes can be obtained from planar anisotropic yield criterion and the
corresponding punch travel and punch force are compared in Figure 175. The amount of
draw-in along the rolling (DX), transverse (DY), and diagonal (DD) directions are
compared with the measurements in Table 2. The measured data is average values of
three participations (B1E-02, B1E-03 and B1E-04) in NUMESHEET’99 benchmark test.

Figure 174: FE model for cylindrical cup drawing.

160

Measured
Simulation
120
Punch force (kN)

80

40

0
0 30 60 90
Punch travel (mm)

Figure 175: Punch force vs. stroke curve.

Measured Measure
Simulation
point d

299

DX 29.0 mm 27.0 mm
DD 32.0 mm 35.0 mm
DY 27.5 mm 25.0 mm
Table 2: Draw-in distance.

References:

[1] Wriggers, P.,Eberlein, R., and REESE, S., 1996, A comparison of three-
dimensional continuum and shell elements for finite plasticity, Int. J. Solids Str.,
33(20-22), pp.3309-3326

[2] Hill, R., 1950, The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford Univ. Press,
London, Chapter 12

[3] Valliappan, S., Boonlaulohr, P., and Lee, I. K., 1976, Non-linear analysis for
anisotropic materiala, Int J Num Meth Eng. 10, 597-606.

[4] Simo, J.C. and Taylor, R.L., 1985, Consistent tangent operators for rate
independent elasto-plasticity, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng., 48, pp. 101-118

[5] Crisfield,M.A., 1987, Consistent schemes for plasticity computation with the
Newton-Raphson method, Computational plasticity, part I, pp. 133-159

[6] Belytschko, T. and Bachrach. W.E., 1986, Efficient implementation of
quadrilaterals with high coarse-mesh accuracy, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng.,
54, pp. 279-301

[7] Hughes, T.J.R., 1980, Genralization of selective integration procedures to
anisotropic and nonlinear media, Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., 15, pp. 1413-1418

[8] Belytschko, T., Ong. J.S., Liu, W.K. and Kennedy, J.M., 1984, Hourglass
control in linear and nonlinear problems, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng., 43, pp.
251-276

[9] Kaiping Li, 1995, Contribution to the finite element simulation of three-
dimensional sheet metal forming, Ph.D thesis, MSM, Universite de Liege,
Belgique

[10] Jetteur, P., 1991, A mixed finite element for the analysis of large inelastic
strains, Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., 13, pp. 229-239

[11] Sze, KY, and Yao, LQ, 2000, A hybrid stress ANS solid-shell element and its
generalization for smart structure modeling. Part I-solid-shell element

300

formulation, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 48, pp.
545-564

[12] Kinkel, S, Gruttmann, F, Wagner, W, 1999, A continuum based three-
dimensional shell element for laminated structures, Computers and Structures,
71, pp. 43-62

[13] Gelin, J. C. and Picart, P., 1999, Proceedings of NUMISHEET’99 - The 4th
international conference and workshop on numerical simulation of 3D sheet
forming processes, France, September 13-17.

301

Appendix I: Eulerian treatment of the 3D rolling process

Note: This facility is encapsulated in the new rolling template that is available. It
is recommended to first try to use the template to take advantage of this facility.

Requirements:

 The work piece mesh should either be a hexahedral, structural mesh or a
tetrahedral mesh (no hexahedral, non-structural meshes permitted).

 The work piece should be plastic.

 The simulation can possess either 1 or 2 rolls.

 The inlet of work piece should have a boundary condition code defined as
BCCDEF=4. This allows for proper treatment for the eulerian calculation.

 The outlet of work piece should have a boundary condition code defined
as BCCDEF=5. This allows for proper treatment for the eulerian
calculation.

 The rolls can be either a rigid object (thermal calculation only) or elasto-
plastic object (deformation and thermal calculation).

 The roll movement allowed is a rotation about a single axis and a
translation.

 The sparse solver should be used rather than the CG solver.

 In the case where the roll is deformable, the rotational axis needs to be
defined. This is done in the rotational symmetry data.

 A data file named DEF_ALE.DAT file is used to store simulation specific
information. Including this file in the problem directory where the
simulation runs will activate the eulerian capability. The format for this file
is as follows:

# of steady state objects
object # object type
object # object type

where:
object type = 1 -> roll object
2 -> sheet object

302

Appendix J: Preventing leakage of nodes in sectioned
simulations

In many cases, To prevent the leaking of nodes about symmetry planes, requires
extra information so that the simulation engine knows the exact definition of the
symmetric condition. This is done by two definitions:

1. The deforming body needs a symmetric plane definition on the cut
surfaces;
2. The rigid geometry require a symmetric surface definition on their cut
surfaces.

In the example used for this section, the spike simulation (Figure 176) will be
used to demonstrate this capability. Note that the die geometries and the work
piece mesh are the same size. What follows is a step-by-step procedure that
shows how this simulation is constructed in order to allow the geometry and
mesh to coincide in size. Note: If there is a difference in the size of the die
versus the work piece in the symmetry surfaces, it is safer to error in making the
dies larger.

Figure 176: Spike problem being used as the example case.

Step 1: Define symmetric surface on work piece cut faces to allow for
proper meshing.

On the work piece geometry, the cut faces should have symmetric surface
defined prior to the meshing step (Figure 177). This option is available from the
geometry selection under the symmetric surface tab. This information allows the
mesh generator to maintain a tight seam of nodes on the centerline.

303

Figure 177: Adding symmetric surface to the part helps the part maintain the centerline
during meshing.

Step 2: Define symmetry surface boundary condition on cut faces of work
piece to maintain proper symmetry.

After the mesh has been generated for the work piece, the nodes on the
symmetry surfaces must be given a boundary condition to hold them in the plane.
This is done under the BCC window. Use the symmetry plane selection and
define symmetry planes for both cut surfaces (Figure 178). After this, the work
piece boundary conditions are taken care of in terms of leakage.

Figure 178: Adding symmetry planes in the boundary condition window maintains the
nodes in a planar condition.

Step 3: Add symmetric surface to die geometry cut surfaces.

Adding symmetric surface condition to the geometry of both the top die (Figure

304

179) and the bottom die completes the specification that allows the dies and work
piece to be the same size.

Figure 179: Adding a symmetric surface to the top die prevents any leakage from
occurring.

305

Appendix K: The Double Concave Corner Constraint

This feature is available under the Simulation Controls -> Advanced menu in the
preprocessor. Any given node in an FEM mesh has three degrees of freedom
(DOF). In a cartesian coordinate system they can be the X, Y and Z directions.
In a cylindrical system, they can be the radial, axial and hoop directions. In any
case, no matter what coordinate system one selects, there are no more and no
less than three degrees of freedom for any node. In the boundary condition
dialog (as seen in Figure 180), the DOF for the nodes are defined through
contact, through velocity control and other conditions. The way in which a DOF
is defined for a node in contact is to not allow the node to penetrate into the
object as well as do not allow separation if the tensile separation criteria is not
exceeded (usually a small nominal value). Three contact conditions, completely
specify the motion of a given node.

Figure 180: The boundary condition dialog.

There is a specific case where more than one degree of freedom is required for a
given node. Consider the case where a node resides in the corner of a die cavity
(as seen in Figure 181). Note that nodes 1,2,3 are in contact with the die surface

306

and their vertical motion should follow the die surface. Note also that nodes
3,4,5 are in contact with the die surface and their horizontal motion should follow
the die surface. The problem comes for node 3. It should have two boundary
condition codes to restrict its motion in two DOF. These two degrees of freedom
can be seen as the directions of the red arrows in Figure 181. However, if it only
has one, it is only restricted in one direction and can thus penetrate the other
direction.

Figure 181: A set of nodes lying on a die surface. Note that nodes 1,2,3 should be
constrained in the vertical direction and nodes 3,4,5 should be constrained in the
horizontal direction.

For this reason, there is a new functionality to let nodes in convex corners be
applied with 2 contact conditions. In order to specify which nodes should be
given this constraint, two angles are to be given for this consideration. As seen
in Figure 182, angle a is the minimum angle value and angle b is the maximum.
Between these two angles, nodes will be specified with a double contact
constraint.

307

Figure 182: The two angles that are specified in the double concave corner constraint.

308

Appendix L: Rolling Simulation Overview (In Progress)

This appendix will cover a basic three-dimensional rolling case seen in Figure
183. This case consists of three objects: slab, roll and pusher. The slab and the
roll are objects used to model rolling and the pusher is used to start the rolling
process by allowing the process to begin to bite the slab.

Figure 183: Simple 3D rolling case with half-symmetry.

309

Appendix M: Checking the forming loads results of a simulation

There are several factors that affect the forming loads and tool stresses of a
simulation. This appendix will try to give the reader a cursory introduction into
understanding what is required of a simulation in order to give accurate results.
It is the presupposition of this document that DEFORM will yield an accurate
result given that the inputs properly reflect the actual case being modeled. It has
been verified many times that DEFORM is a leader in accurate results for the
correct input.

The outline of this appendix is to first discuss some guidelines for obtaining
proper load results. Since these loads are transmitted as forces onto the dies, it
is imperative that these results be accurate in order for the stresses in the dies to
be accurate.

Guideline 1: Check the flow stress data and make sure that it is
representative of your actual stock.

This is a very obvious rule that sounds simple at first but tends to be overlooked
very frequently. Some people perform testing on their material to make sure that
the data they have matches the materials they are using. Often some data is
meant for different processes or has had slightly different processing conditions
or has a different chemistry. If testing is not an option, often one can try to
correlate load results over several simulated processes and try to determine the
suitability of material data.

Guideline 2: Make sure that the material data covers the process condition
range.

The required material data for a simulation can be only flow stress data for a
rigid-plastic material at isothermal conditions. In the case of a non-isothermal
elasto-plastic simulation, elastic, plastic and thermal data should be specified. All
the required data should be specified for the range of temperature, strain and
strain rate that the process exists at. If any extrapolation occurs, the results can
become inaccurate.

Guideline 3: Check that the mesh resolution of work piece is reasonable to
capture the shape of the dies.

The number of required elements in a simulation can vary depending on the
process and the desired results. In the case of a simple upset of a round bar, the
deformation gradient is not large and the only region that can require a fine mesh
is at the contact areas if a hot work piece is contacting a cold tool. However, in

310

the case of a forging of a complex shape such as a crankshaft, many elements
are required to capture the many details of the final shape.

Guideline 4: Make sure that if the process is hot or warm that correct die
speed is considered as well as time for the part to be transferred

In the case of hot forming and some warm forming cases, the materials tend to
be sensitive to forming rate. In this case, the speed of the moving tool can
impact the results greatly. The impact of the forming rate can be seen directly in
the flow stress data. By checking how much the flow stress data changes at a
given temperature based on the forming rate can show very large changes in the
stress of the material (thus the forming load of the part) versus the forming rate.
Also, in cases where a part is very hot, small periods of time between transfers
can add up to a non-negligible amount of heat loss. This is important to consider
since many materials can have their properties changes very quickly at hot
temperatures.

Guideline 5: Check at the end of the simulation that the flash thickness is
correct (or that the tool travel distance is correct)

This should be of no surprise to anyone who designs tools are works in the metal
forming industry. As a part fills all the crevices of a die, the load will tend to
increase rather quickly. If the simulation is overstroked or understroked, the
results will behave just like real life. The results will tend to over or
underestimate loads respectively.

Guideline 6: Make sure that the friction value is consistent with the actual
process

In many processes such as a forward extrusion, the friction can contribute to the
forming load of the process. DEFORM provides some recommended values
within the interface but it is important that the user should take care to check
whether these values are applicable to the process at hand.

311

Appendix N: Model set up for Steady state machining process
from the DEFORM Pre-Processor.
(Keyword file available to the user: steady_state_machining.KEY,
Process type: Turning)

Objective:
• To predict steady state chip geometry
• To predict steady state thermal behavior
Procedure:
Here is a step-by-step instruction on how to perform this analysis

Figure 184: Result of lagrangian simulation of chip forming

S te p 1
Load the machining database in Pre after sufficient chip has formed in the
transient (Lagrangian) mode

312

Figure 185: Setting the simulation type to steady state

S te p 2
Set the analysis type to the Steady-State Machining mode in the simulation
controls menu

Figure 186: Set the number of steady state iterations

313

S te p 3
Set the number of steady state iterations (Number of simulation steps)

Figure 187: Entering the BCC menu

S te p 4
Enter the BCC menu to define the free surface nodes on the chip

Figure 188: Entering the free surface BCC definition

314

S te p 5
Enter the Free surface BCC definition menu

Figure 189: Zoomed in on end of chip

S te p 6
• Zoom in to the chip end surface area
• Identify the end surface on the chip
Program treats this region as the material exit region and rest of the chip surface
is corrected to follow the steady state velocity field

Please note that this region should be sufficiently away from the insert contact
region, otherwise free surface correction predictions may not be accurate.

315

Figure 190: Selecting the end nodes

S te p 7
Select the chip end surface nodes using the available options, and click on the
‘+’ add icon to confirm the selection (see the red dots on the selected nodes)

Figure 191: Write the database

S te p 8

316

W rite the database

Figure 192: Running the simulation (Note the text in the message file)

S te p 9
• Carry out the analysis
W atch for the messages in the message file as shown here,

Figure 193: Loading the simulation in the post-processor

317

S te p 1 0
Load the machining database in Post.

Figure 194: Check the corrected shape of the chip

S te p 1 1
Check for the corrected chip shape

Figure 195: Check the updated temperature on the chip

318

S te p 1 2
Check for the converged work piece temperature

Figure 196: The converged cutting force

S te p 1 3
Check for the converged cutting force on the insert

319

Appendix O: Document on constructing linear friction
simulations

Qualification for the user:

This document is a suggestion on how linear friction welding simulations can be
run. This material may be dated or may not represent your process precisely.
Please exercise judgment on what is or is not applicable to your process.

Overview:

In this type of simulation, there are two distinct operations that occur: the heat-
up stage and the deformation stage. The heat-up stage can be modeled as a
pure heat transfer simulation as the oscillatory rubbing between two objects is
modeled. Initially, the objects are room temperature and the frictional heating
being generated as the simulation progresses characterize this stage. The
simulation will stop once the interface temperature is at a set temperature where
the objects would become bonded. At this time, the simulation should activate
both deformation and heat transfer. This second stage, known as the
deformation stage, will model the flow of the material during welding. A fine
mesh should be present at the interface to give adequate temperature
distribution through the thickness of the parts. As friction welding can be a rather
fast process, the temperature gradient through the thickness of the part can be
rather steep, thus it is highly recommended to make a fine mesh in the depth of
the part as well.

There are several ways in which to run such an operation. A few are as follows:

 Single body with no modeling of the oscillatory motion

This is recommended when a fast simulation needs to be run and if both
welding objects are the same size and same material composition at the
interface. The heat contribution due to the relative motion of the two bodies is
considered but the flash and the temperature distribution is considered to be
symmetric.

 Two bodies are modeled with no modeling of the actual oscillatory motion

This is recommended when the two objects are of differing size at the
interface or when they are of differing materials. The heating due to the relative
motion is considered but no actual relative motion occurs.

 Two bodies are modeled with the actual oscillatory motion

320

This requires many steps since it is essential to represent the oscillation
accurately.

Model Descriptions:
Non-welded linear friction heating

This phase describes how to model the first stage in a linear friction simulation:
frictional heating. At this time, the weld hasn't started to begin and the material at
the interface is heating and beginning to plasticise. This phase is a thermal
calculation only and case use either one or two work pieces.

Single body case:

In this case, please use the same method as the two body case. When the heat
up stage is finished, delete one of the bodies and perform the required actions for
setting up the deformation stage.

Two body case:

In this case, there are only four objects that are essential: two work pieces, the
pusher and the oscillator. The work pieces are the objects that will be bonded.
The pusher is a rigid object that applies the upsetting load to the welding objects.
The oscillator is an object that allows the welded objects to react against the
upsetting load. Also, the oscillator controls the oscillating friction direction. The
oscillator should be able to support the upset load. The pusher can be a flat
plane or can be a tool shape that holds the work piece. The work piece shape is
important and should be whatever shape is being welded. Note that there can be
some economy taken in terms of work piece geometries such as an entire blisk is
not required for modeling in order to run this type of simulation.

Figure 197: Diagram of two body case.

321

The movement conditions depend on the actual process, but in the case of a
force driven process, the pusher can be specified with the force in the upset
direction while the oscillator should be specified with speed control of 0 but with
the direction of oscillating motion. The direction in the movement of the oscillator
is used to let the simulation engine know the direction of oscillation. The
oscillation parameters are taken from a external DATA file.

The inter-object relations are important to obtain a correct result. The relations
between the pusher and the work piece should be high friction (constant shear =
20) and a high interface heat transfer coefficient. The relation between the work
piece and the oscillator should be high friction (constant shear = 20) and a high
interface heat transfer coefficient. Both relationships should have very high
separation criteria (absolute pressure of high value, e.g. 1e+09). The contact
condition at this point should be completely contacted in areas being pushed or
welded. The contact condition between the two deforming objects should have
coulomb friction defined.

A file named TFW.DAT should be located in the same directory where the
simulation is being run. The content of the file is described as below:

Here is a checklist of all the required settings to run properly:

 There should be a minimum of four objects: two work pieces, an oscillator
and a pusher.

 The work pieces should have contact defined at their interface.

 The pusher should have an upset load defined in the direction of the
upset.

 The oscillator should have a zero-velocity condition defined with
movement direction in the oscillating direction.

 The pusher and the contacting work piece should have high friction and a
high interface heat transfer coefficient defined.

 The oscillator and the contacting work piece should have high friction and
a high interface heat transfer coefficient defined.

 A file named TFW.DAT should be correctly assembled and placed in the
directory where the database is located.

Note that there are a few extra options that can be run for different options.
In particular are the options for END.DAT and TRW2.DAT. The first allows
the user to consider the fact that the ends will not heat as much as the rest

322

of the part since it will be exposed to the air for part of the oscillation. The
second option allows the pressure distribution to be non-uniform at the
interface. Due to certain shapes in linear friction welding, it is possible that
the interface pressure can be non-uniform leading to non-uniform heating.

TFW.DAT – Additional input of oscillating movement and pressure for friction
heating

Line 1: I21, I22, A23, A24, A25,I26,A27
Line 2: (Optional) I3
If I3 exists:
Line 3: A41, A42
Line 4: A51, A52
…..

where
I21, I22 – boundary numbers of the friction pair
A23 – half amplitude
A24 – frequency
A25 – pressure
I26 – stopping criterion:
1 – upset displacement (to be implemented)
2 – upset rate (to be implemented)
3 – percentage of the interface area where the yield shear stress has reduced
to the frictional traction
A27 – value used in accordance with I26
I3 – total number of data pair defining half amplitude
A41, A42 – time, half amplitude
A51, A52 -- ditto
……

Example:

2 3 0.05 30 5 1. 0.
8
0 0.01
0.3 0.012
0.5 0.016
1.3 0.017
2.6 0.013
4 0.014
5 0.015

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10 0.02

Notes:

1. The oscillator should have the direction defined (“Speed” type movement).
2. Coulomb friction should be used together with an appropriate coefficient.
3. Heat transfer mode or non-isothermal mode can be used. However, the
stopping criteria 1 and 2 only work with the latter.

END.DAT – a flag to include the end effect in frictional heating

Line 1: I1

where
I1 = 4 for tetrahedral elements;
= 8 for brick elements

TFW2.DAT – a flag for using the stress as the normal pressure

Line 1: I1

where
I1 – component of stress to be used, such as 1 (x-component), 2 (y-component)
and 3 (z-component).

Notes:
1. Non-isothermal mode is required to run the simulation.
2. This file should be used in conjunction with TFW.DAT
3. This file cannot be used together with TFW3.DAT (not in this manual yet).
4. Please note that the stress distribution could be spotty with the tetrahedral
elements.

Description:

Simplified fully-welded flashing

After the heat-up stage, the deformation stage can be initiated. It can be
performed in two general ways, a single deforming body or two deforming
bodies. The single deforming body case is more efficient in terms of
computational time and memory usage however should not be used in cases
where this assumption is not valid. This assumption is not valid if the cross

324

section of the contacting areas is not the same or if the material properties for the
two bodies are significantly different.

In the case of two deforming bodies, the oscillating motion of the pieces can be
modeled or not. It is much more efficient to not model oscillation as this requires
many more very fine steps. Both methods will be described below.

Single body case:

 One of the two work pieces should be deleted.

 The deformation module should be turned on.

 There should be a minimum of three objects: one work piece, an oscillator
and a pusher.

 The work piece should have contact defined at the interface with the
pusher and the oscillator.

upset.


 The pusher and the contacting work piece should have high friction, a high
separation pressure and an interface heat transfer coefficient defined.

 The oscillator and the contacting work piece should have low friction and a
low interface heat transfer coefficient defined.

 A fine named EPSR.INI should be correctly assembled and placed in the

Two body case (no oscillation):


and a pusher.

325

 One of the work pieces should have contact defined at the interface with
the pusher.

the oscillator.

 The two work pieces should have contact defined at their interface.

upset.


 The work piece interface should have appropriate friction and separation
pressure.



 A fine named EPSR.INI should be correctly assembled and placed in the

EPSR.INI – data to initiate a simplified welding and flashing simulation

I11, I12, I13, I14, I15
A21, A22

where
I11 – type of strain rate to be added to the de-coupled model
= -1 – effective strain rate
= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 -- x, y, z, xy, yz or zx component of strain rate
= 7 – all six strain rate components
I12 – boundary number of the oscillator
I13 – boundary number of the pusher
I14 – weld object number, if there is only one involved in simulation
= 0 – for two objects to be welded together
I15 – step increment where the strain rates are calculated using the full model
and saved for the next I15 steps of de-coupled simulation
A21 – period of the oscillation
A22 – half amplitude of the oscillation

326

Example:

5 4 1 0 5
0.16 0.01

Description:

Fully modeled oscillation

Two body case (with oscillation):


 Polygon edge length sub stepping should be turned off (set to zero).

 Add a stopping distance between the pusher and the oscillator where
each point lies on the respective object. The purpose for this is that the
oscillation distance at a given step is stored in the oscillation direction
component of the stopping distance. For example, if the objects oscillate
in the z-direction, leave the z-components of the stopping distance zero so
that these values can update properly.

and a pusher.

the pusher.

the oscillator.

 The two work pieces should have contact defined at their interface.

upset.


 The work piece interface should have appropriate friction and separation
pressure.

327



 A fine named OSC.DAT should be correctly assembled and placed in the

OSC.DAT – data for more accurate control of oscillating movement

Line 1: A1, A2, A3, I1, I2

where
A1 – period of oscillation
A2 – starting time
A3 – amplitude
I1 – Boundary number of the oscillator
I2 – divisions in a half amplitude (= 1/4 oscillating cycle)

Example:

0.33333333 6 0.05 4 5

328

Appendix P: On Using Spring-Loaded Dies

The Spring-loaded die setting window

Below is a glossary of the settings for a spring-loaded die as seen in Figure 198.

On/Off – This activates/deactivates the facility for a given object.
Compression Direction – This is the direction in which the movement generates
a corresponding spring force.
Stiffness – This is the rate at which the reaction force changes with spring
displacement.
Preload – The load at which it is required to initiate movement of the spring.
Current displacement – The current amount of compression the spring is under.
Maximum displacement – This is the maximum amount of compression a
spring can be subjected to before it “bottoms out”. Setting this value to a very
large number gives the spring much travel distance.
Other end of spring – This determines where the other end of the spring is
attached. This end can be attached to another object or a fixed point in space.
Reversible – This functionality is meant only for cogging simulations.
Current Die Stroke – This feature a signed three-component vector that shows
the current amount of displacement in the spring.

Figure 198: The spring-loaded die setting window

329

Required Settings to Model a Spring-Loaded Die

Consider the following axisymmetric case seen in Figure 199 where a punch
shares a spring with another die. As the punch moves downward, the work piece
is formed under the spring-loaded die and pushes the die upward.

Figure 199: An example spring-loaded die case

To construct this simulation of a plastic work piece and rigid tools, set the
following things in the simulation:

1. Set the spring-loaded die settings for the Spring Loaded Die. This includes
turning on the spring-loaded die property, setting the compressive direction, the
preload, the spring stiffness, the maximum displacement and the other end of the
spring. The maximum displacement should be the distance from the top of the
spring-loaded die and the bottom of the flange of the punch.

2. Set an inter-object relation between the bottom die and the spring-loaded die.
The bottom die should be the master object and the spring-loaded die should be
the slave object. Contact will not be generated between the two rigid objects.

330

Appendix Q: THE DEFORM ELASTO-PLASTIC MODEL

In general, the elasto-plastic material model should be run in a very similar
manner as the rigid-plastic material model. Some differences are discussed in
the following section.

Material Properties

In addition to the flow stress data, the material is also required to have Young's
modulus (YOUNG) and Poisson's ratio (POISON). If thermal expansion and
contraction is to be considered, the thermal expansion coefficient must also be
present. Note: elastic and elasto-plastic materials in DEFORM deal with thermal
expansion differently (see Thermal expansion (EXPAND) for more details).

In the elasto-plastic model, the flow stress at zero strain represents the yield
stress for the material. As the accumulated effective plastic strain increases, the
yield stress increases. The flow stress data must have a reasonable description
for the initial yield stress particularly in the case of low deformation simulations
such as heat treatment. This is where the elastic part of the stress-strain curve
intersects with the plastic part of the curve. If the flow stress data is only defined
for high strain values, DEFORM will extrapolate the yield stress and this value
may not be close to the actual yield stress. Thus, valid results are unlikely and
convergence difficulties are possible. Thus, having some flow stress data at low
effective plastic strain values may aid convergence. (See Figure 200 for an
example of extrapolation of the initial yield stress).

In order to provide guidance to users who are not familiar with modeling elasto-
plastic materials, we offer the following suggestions.

a) When using the function form: y = Cenem + y0, it is accurate for y0 to be equal
to the initial yield stress. If y0 = 0, the initial yield stress will be poorly
represented.

b) When using a table form, the program will extrapolate/interpolate the flow
stress and use that as the initial yield stress. If extrapolation is expected, be sure

331

that the slope of the flow stress in the small strain region is "reasonable", i.e.
extrapolated value should be the same as the initial yield stress. Some
modifications may be needed in the small strain region, like adding one more
point to correct the slope. These modifications should be made even if the flow
stress is retrieved from the DEFORM material database.

Figure 200: Extrapolation of flow stress data to determine the initial yield stress.

Object data

 Set the EP initial guess under Objects/Properties/Deformation to Previous
step solution.

 If there is a change in operation, e.g. moving the part from one station to
another, initialize the velocity for the part under Objects/Nodes
Data/Deformation. This will improve the initial guess of the velocity
solution.

 If moving the part from one set-up to another, allow the part to relax its
stresses by placing a few spring back steps between operations.

Solution procedure

 Always use Newton-Raphson iteration method or BFGS iteration method.
The user can select the different methods under Simulation
Controls/Iteration. It is useful to try switch iteration methods when either

332

one fails to converge.

 The force error norm can be increased two orders of magnitude larger
than the velocity error norm. This is suggested only when the solution fails
to converge due to non-stationary force error norm behavior. The value
can be changed under Simulation Controls/Iteration.

 It is recommended to reduce the value after convergence has been
achieved.

 Elasto-plastic convergence is very sensitive on time-step size. By
selecting a time step size too large (size depends on the simulation),
convergence may be very difficult. By reducing time-step, convergence in
many cases may be improved.

Strain Definition

 The calculated strain components are of the "plastic" strain and the
"effective strain" is the effective plastic strain.

Advice on Predicting Spring back

 To calculate the residual stress or spring back during unloading, one of
two methods may be used.

 If the amount of spring back or residual stress is the chief concern,
remove the dies, put enough constraint on the work piece to prevent rigid
body motion. run a one step simulation.

 If the user wishes to observe the material response during the unloading,
then reverse the direction of the primary die. run multiple small steps.

Note on Convergence issues with Elasto-Plastic material models:

Background: It has been a common and convenient approach for the users to
use the material data from an existing model or from library data. As long as

333

material data covers the range experienced by material point for a given
simulation the model behavior is generally smooth. But once this material point
crosses the defined data range, it is important to note that the flow stress data
extrapolation plays a role in the accuracy of the model results. This becomes
even more critical for elasto-plastic models when we need to depend on these
extrapolated data to compute material yielding. This note summarizes couple of
important points in this regard.
As the example shows in the Appendix, Log interpolation my lead numerical
difficulties for some material data. In order to get more stable results, new
convention rule is introduced in V8.2.

DEFORM convention rule for material interpolation

Convention: See Figure 201

1. If the current plastic strain is smaller than the 1st data point user defined, then
“Linear interpolation” will be used.
2. If the current plastic strain rate is smaller than the 1st data point user defined,
then “Linear interpolation” will be used.

 Always “Linear” interpolation

“Log” or “Linear” as User defined

“Linear” interpolation
“Log” interpolation
1st

 (or  )
User
.
Figure 201: Convention rule for flow stress definition

Note: If the user doesn’t want to use the convention rule, the user should
specify zero strain and zero strain rate curves.

334

Comments on “Flow curve definition for Rate-dependent material”.

Typical convergence issues related elasto-plastic objects are related to material
data and “material instability”. It may lead to the failure in “material routine
convergence” and can potentially give wrong stress predictions. Here the flow
curve definition for Rate-dependent material will be discussed briefly.

1. Material AISI-1010, Cold (Log interpolation): The general shape of curve
looks like “Hardening material”. Two curves at different strain rates ( = 1 ,
100) defined.

Figure 202: Flow curves for “AISI-1010,Cold”

2. Special care is needed in using LOG interpolation

User can choose one of interpolation methods, either “Log” or “Linear”. When
user choose “Log (default)”, the interpolated curve at the small strain rate (= 0 ~
1) is shown in Figure 203. The curve at the zero strain rate now has softening
behavior.
(“Linear interpolation results” is still hardening behavior as shown in Figure 204).

During the simulation with Log interpolation, the yield stress (96.0144 at strain
rate = 0.032867 ) was smaller than the static yield stress (96.4215655 at strain
rate = 0). This makes “Material instability during radial return mapping). The

335

specific reason of Log interpolation should be examined.

Figure 203: Log interpolation at the small strain rate(= 0 ~ 1)

Figure 204: Linear interpolation at the small strain rate(= 0 ~ 1)

336

Appendix P: Setting Up Multiple Processor Simulations

To turn on multiple processing, open the main window of DEFORM-3D and
select the Option pulldown selection and click the Environment option. Scroll
through the tabs and select the MPI tab as seen in Figure 205. At this point, click
the Use MPI tab and input the name of the computer to run the DEFORM
simulation and the number of processors to use.

Figure 205: The MPI settings window under Option->Environment

If you are unsure the name of the computer, go to the Control Panel of your
Windows machine and click on the System applet and search for your computer
name. As seen in Figure 206, the computer name is given where Full Computer
Name is. It is very important to ensure that the correct computer name is set
under the MPI settings otherwise the simulation will not run.

337

Figure 206: The computer name given by the Windows System applet

Enabling the MPI setting in the Option->Environment will turn on multi-processing
for New Problems but will not enable this options for any problems that were
created prior to setting this. To enable multi-processing for old problems, click
the Run (option) selection in the Simulator section of the main window of
DEFORM-3D. A window as seen in Figure 207 will appear. Check the Multiple
Processor selection and click the Set Up… button. A window as seen in Figure
208 will appear. Again, the user should input the host name of the computer and
the number of processors. After this, the simulation can be run in multiple
processor mode.

338

Figure 207: The Run (option) window

Figure 208: The run option setup window

339

Deform 3 d v6.0

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