DATABASE MANAGMENT SYSTEM (DBMS) AND SQL

Unit-III
DATABASES MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND SQL
DBMS & Structured Query Language Chapter: 07
Basic Database concepts
Data : Raw facts and figures which are useful to an organization. We cannot take decisions on the
basis of data.
Information: Well processed data is called information. We can take decisions on the basis of
information
Field: Set of characters that represents specific data element.
Record: Collection of fields is called a record. A record can have fields of different datatypes.
File: Collection of similar types of records is called a file.
Table: Collection of rows and columns that contains useful data/information is called a table. A table
generally refers to the passive entity which is kept in secondary storage device.
Relation: Relation (collection of rows and columns) generally refers to an active entity on which we
can perform various operations.
Database: Collection of logically related data along with its description is termed as database.
Tuple: A row in a relation is called a tuple.
Attribute: A column in a relation is called an attribute. It is also termed as field or data item.
Degree: Number of attributes in a relation is called degree of a relation.
Cardinality: Number of tuples in a relation is called cardinality of a relation.
Primary Key: Primary key is a key that can uniquely identifies the records/tuples in a relation. This
key can never be duplicated and NULL.
Foreign Key: Non key attribute of a table acting as primary key in some other table is known as
Foreign Key in its current table. This key is used to enforce referential integrity in RDBMS.
Candidate Key: Attributes of a table which can serve as a primary key are called candidate key.
Alternate Key: All the candidate keys other than the primary keys of a relation are alternate keys for
a relation.
DBA: Data Base Administrator is a person (manager) that is responsible for defining the data base
schema, setting security features in database, ensuring proper functioning of the data bases etc.
Select Operation: The select operation selects tuples from a relation which satisfy a given condition.
Project Operation: The project operation selects columns from a relation which satisfy a given
all available columns.
Union Operation: The union (denoted as ) of a collection of relations is the set of all distinct
tuples in the collection. It is a binary operation that needs two relations.
Set Difference Operation: This is denoted by (minus) and is a binary operation. It results in a set
of tuples that are in one relation but not in another
Structured Query Language
SQL is a non procedural language that is used to create, manipulate and process the
databases(relations).
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL contains commands that are used to create the tables, databases, indexes, views, sequences and
synonyms etc.
e.g: Create table, create view, create index, alter table etc.
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2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
DML contains commands that can be used to manipulate the data base objects and to query the
databases for information retrieval.
e.g Select, Insert, Delete, Update etc.
3. Transaction Control Language (TCL)
TCL include commands to control the transactions in a data base system. The commonly
used commands in TCL are COMMIT, ROLLBACK etc.
Operators in SQL: The following are the commonly used operators in SQL
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
+, -, *, /
=, <, >, <=, >=, <>
OR, AND, NOT
Data types of SQL: Just like any other programming language, the facility of defining data
of various types is available in SQL also. Following are the most common data types of SQL.
1) NUMBER
2) CHAR
e.g. Number(n,d) Number (5,2)
CAHR(SIZE)
3) VARCHAR / VARCHAR2 VARCHAR2(SIZE)
4) DATE DD-MON-YYYY
Constraints: Constraints are the conditions that can be enforced on the attributes of a relation.
The constraints come in play when ever we are trying to insert, delete or update a record in a
relation.
Not null ensures that we cannot leave a column as null. That is a value has to be supplied for that
column.
e.g. name varchar(25) not null
Unique constraint means that the values under that column are always unique.
e.g. Roll_no number(3) unique
Primary key constraint means that a column can not have duplicate values and not even a null value.
e.g. Roll_no number(3) primary key
The main difference between unique and primary key constraint is that a column specified as unique
may have null value but primary key constraint does not allow null values in the column.
Foreign key is used to enforce referential integrity and is declared as a primary key in some other
table.
e.g. cust_id varchar(5) references master(cust_id)
it declares cust_id column as a foreign key that refers to cust_id field of table master.
That means we cannot insert that value in cust_id filed whose corresponding value is not present in
cust_id field of master table. master table , if a corresponding
value of cust_id field is existing in the dependent table.
Check constraint limits the values that can be inserted into a column of a table.
e.g. marks number(3) check(marks>=0)
The above statement declares marks to be of type number and while inserting or updating the value
in marks it is ensured that its value is always greater than or equal to zero.
Default constraint is used to specify a default value to a column of a table automatically. This default
value will be used when user does not enter any value for that column.
e.g. balance number(5) default = 0

1.
SQL COMMANDS :
Create Table command is used to create a table . The syntax of this Command is:
CREATE TABLE <Table_name>
data_type1 [(size) column_constraints],
data_type1 [(size) column_constraints],
( column_name 1
column_name 1
:
:
[<table_constraint> (column_names)] );
2.The ALTER Table command is used to change the definition (structure) of existing table.
ALTER TABLE <Table_name> ADD/MODIFY <Column_defnition>; For Add or modify column
ALTER TABLE <Table_name> DROP COLUMN <Column_name>; For Deleting a column
3. The INSERT Command: The rows (tuples) are added to a table by using INSERT command.
The syntax of Insert command is:
INSERT INTO <table_name> [(<column_list>)] VALUES (<value_list>);
e.g.,
INSERT INTO EMP (empno, ename,
If the order of values matches the actual order of columns in table then it is not required to give the
column_list in INSERT command. e.g.
4. The Update command is used to change the value in a table. The syntax of this command is:
UPDATE <table_name>
SET column_name1=newvalue1/expression [,column_name2=newvalue2/expression
WHERE <condition>;
e.g., to increase the salary of all the employees of department No 10 by 10% , then command will
be:
UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal*1.1
WHERE Deptno=10;
5. The DELETE command removes rows from a table. This removes the entire rows, not
individual field values. The syntax of this command is
DELETE FROM <table_name>
[WHERE <condition>];
e.g., to delete the tuples from EMP that have salary less than 2000, the following command is used:
DELETE FROM emp WHERE sal<2000;
To delete all tuples from emp table:
DELETE FROM emp;
6. The SELECT command is used to make queries on database. A query is a command that is given
to produce certain specified information from the database table(s). The SELECT command can be
used to retrieve a subset of rows or columns from one or more tables. The syntax of Select Command
is:
SELECT <Column-list>
FROM <table_name>
[WHERE <condition>]
[GROUP BY <column_list>]
[HAVING <condition>]
[ORDER BY <column_list [ASC|DESC ]>]
The select clause list the attributes desired in the result of a query.
e.g.,To display the names of all Employees in the emp relation:
select ename from emp;
To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct after select.
Find the number of all departments in the emp relations, and remove duplicates
select distinct deptno from emp;
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An asterisk (*)
SELECT * FROM emp;
The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the operation, +, , *, and /, and
operating on constants or attributes of tuples. The query:
SELECT empno, ename, sal * 12 FROM emp;
would display all values same as in the emp relation, except that the value of the attribute sal is
multiplied by 12.
The WHERE clause in SELECT statement specifies the criteria for selection of rows to be returned.
Conditions based on a range (BETWEEN Operator): The Between operator defines a range
of values that the column values must fall in to make condition true . The range includes both lower
value and upper value.
e.g., Find the empno of those employees whose salary between 90,000 and 100,000 (that is, 90,000
and 100,000)
SELECT empno FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 90000 AND 100000;
Conditions based on a list (IN operator): To specify a list of values , IN operator is used. IN
operator selects values that match any value in a given list of values.
The NOT IN operator finds rows that do not match in the list. So if you write
It will list members not from the cities mentioned in the list.
Conditions based on Pattern: SQL also includes a string-matching operator, LIKE, for
comparison on character string using patterns. Patterns are described using two special wildcard
characters:
Percent (%)
Underscore (_)
% matches any substring(one,more than one or no character).
character.
Patterns are case-senstive.
Like keyword is used to select row contaning columns that match a wildcard pattern.
The keyword not like is used to select the row that do not match the specified patterns
of characters.
Searching for NULL: The NULL value in a column is searched for in a table using IS NULL in
the WHERE clause (Relational Operators like =,<> etc can not be used with NULL).
For example, to list details of all employees whose departments contain NULL (i.e., novalue), you
use the command:
SELECT empno, ename FROM emp Where Deptno IS NULL;
ORDER BY Clause: Whenever a select query is executed the resulting rows are displayed in the
order in which the exist in the table. You can sort the result of a query in a specific order using
ORDER BY clause. The ORDER BY clause allow sorting of query result by one or more
columns. The sorting can be done either in ascending or descending order.
Note:- If order is not specifies that by default the sorting will be performed in ascendingorder.
GROUP BY Clause: The GROUP BY clause groups the rows in the result by columns that have
the same values. Grouping is done on column name. It can also be performed using aggregate
functions in which case the aggregate function produces single value for each group.
Aggregate Functions: These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of a relation,
and return a value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
48

Ans : (i) SELECT GameName,Gcode FROM GAMES;
(ii) SELECT * FROM GAMES WHERE PrizeMoney>7000;
(iii) SELECT * FROM GAMES ORDER BY ScheduleDate;
49
These functions are called aggregate functions because they operate on aggregates of tuples. The
result of an aggregate function is a single value.
HAVING Clause: The HAVING clause place conditions on groups in contrast to WHERE clause
that place conditions on individual rows. While WHERE condition cannot include aggregate
functions, HAVING conditions can do so. e.g.,
Select avg(sal), sum(sal) from emp group by deptno having deptno=10;
Select job, count(*) from emp group by job having count(*)<3;
7. The DROP Command : The DROP TABLE command is used to drop (delete) a table from
database. But there is a condition for droping a table ; it must be an empty table i.e. a table with rows
in it cannot be dropped.The syntax of this command is :
DROP TABLE <Table_name>;
e.g.,
DROP TABLE EMP;
8. Query Based on Two table (Join):
SELECT <Column-list>
FROM <table_name1>,<table_name2>
WHERE <Join_condition>[AND condition];
9. Qualified Names :
<tablename>.<fieldname>
This type of field names are called qualified field names and are used to identifying a field if the two
joining tables have fields with same name.
6 Marks Questions
Q2. Consider the following tables GAMES and PLAYER. Write SQL commands for the statements
(i) to (iv) and give outputs for SQL queries (v) to (viii).
Table: GAMES
GCode GameName Number PrizeMoney ScheduleDate
101 Carom Board 2 5000 23-Jan-2004
102 Badminton 2 12000 12-Dec-2003
103 Table Tennis 4 8000 14-Feb-2004
105 Chess 2 9000 01-Jan-2004
108 Lawn Tennis 4 25000 19-Mar-2004
Table: PLAYER
PCode Name Gcode
1 Nabi Ahmad 101
2 Ravi Sahai 108
3 Jatin 101
4 Nazneen 103
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
To display the name of all Games with their Gcodes.
To display details of those games which are having PrizeMoney more than 7000.
To display the content of the GAMES table in ascending order of ScheduleDate.
To display sum of PrizeMoney for each of the Number of participation groupings (as shown
in column Number 2 or 4).
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Number) FROM GAMES;
SELECT MAX(ScheduleDate),MIN(ScheduleDate) FROM GAMES;
SELECT SUM(PrizeMoney) FROM GAMES;
SELECT DISTINCT Gcode FROM PLAYER;
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)

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(iv) SELECT SUM(PrizeMoney),Number FROM GAMES GROUP BY Number;
(v) 2
(vi) 19-Mar-2004 12-Dec-2003
(vii) 59000
(viii) 101
103
108
Q2. Consider the following tables FACULTY and COURSES. Write SQL commands for the
statements (i) to (v) and give outputs for SQL queries (vi) to (vii).
FACULTY
F_ID Fname Lname Hire_date Salary
102 Amit Mishra 12-10-1998 12000
103 Nitin Vyas 24-12-1994 8000
104 Rakshit Soni 18-5-2001 14000
105 Rashmi Malhotra 11-9-2004 11000
106 Sulekha Srivastava 5-6-2006 10000
COURSES
C_ID F_ID Cname Fees
C21 102 Grid Computing 40000
C22 106 System Design 16000
C23 104 Computer Security 8000
C24 106 Human Biology 15000
C25 102 Computer Network 20000
C26 105 Visual Basic 6000
i) To display details of those Faculties whose salary is greater than 12000.
ii)To display the details of courses whose fees is in the range of 15000 to 50000 (both
values included).
iv
courses.
v) Select COUNT(DISTINCT F_ID) from COURSES;
vi)Select Fname,Cname from FACULTY,COURSES where COURSES.F_ID =FACULTY.F_ID;
Ans.: (i) Select * from faculty where salary > 12000;
(ii) Select * from Courses.where fees between 15000 and 50000;
(iii)
(iv) Select * from faculty fac,courses cour where fac.f_id = cour.f_id and fac.fname =
'Sulekha' order by cname desc;
(v) 4
2- Marks Questions
Define the following terms:
(i) DDL (ii) DML (iii) Primary Key (iv) Candidate Key
(v) Alternet Key (vi) Foreign Key (vii) Cardinality of relation (viii) Degree of relation
(ix) Relation (x) Attribute (xi) Tuple
Fname Cname
Amit Grid Computing
Rakshit Computer Security
Rashmi Visual Basic
Sulekha Human Biology

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