Double Linked List (Algorithm)
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The document discusses double linked lists, defining them as a sequence of elements where each node contains links to both its previous and next nodes, allowing for bidirectional traversal. It outlines the advantages and disadvantages of double linked lists, such as faster insertion and deletion compared to linked lists, but requiring more memory. Additionally, it details operations such as insertion, deletion, and display, and explains key points regarding node structure and operations performed on double linked lists.
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The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex (PDC) is a multi-enzyme complex that catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate (end product of glycolysis) into acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid (Krebs) cycle. This reaction is a crucial link between glycolysis and the TCA cycle, and it occurs in the mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells.
🧪 Overall Reaction
Pyruvate
+
CoA-SH
+
NAD
+
→
Acetyl-CoA
+
CO
2
+
NADH
+
H
+
Pyruvate+CoA-SH+NAD
+
→Acetyl-CoA+CO
2
+NADH+H
+
🔍 Structure of PDC
PDC consists of three core enzymes (E1, E2, E3) and requires five cofactors.
🔹 Enzymes
E1: Pyruvate dehydrogenase
Removes CO₂ from pyruvate (decarboxylation)
Requires TPP (thiamine pyrophosphate)
E2: Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase
Transfers acetyl group to CoA
Requires lipoic acid and Coenzyme A
E3: Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase
Regenerates lipoic acid
Requires FAD and NAD⁺
🔹 Cofactors Needed
TPP (Vitamin B1)
Lipoic acid
Coenzyme A (Vitamin B5 derivative)
FAD (Vitamin B2)
NAD⁺ (Vitamin B3)
⚙️ Regulation of PDC
✅ Allosteric/Feedback Regulation
Inhibited by: Acetyl-CoA, NADH, ATP
Activated by: Pyruvate, CoA, NAD⁺, ADP
✅ Covalent Modification
Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase: phosphorylates → inactivates E1
Pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase: dephosphorylates → activates E1
Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) activate phosphatase → important in muscle contraction
🧬 Clinical Significance
🔸 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Deficiency
Leads to lactic acidosis and neurological defects
Pyruvate accumulates and gets converted to lactate
Most common congenital lactic acidosis cause
🔸 Arsenic Poisoning
Arsenite binds to lipoic acid, inhibiting PDC and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
Symptoms: vomiting, diarrhea, garlic breath, CNS effects
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Renal system (regulation of bicarbonate and hydrogen ion excretion).
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Metabolic Acidosis
Definition
Metabolic acidosis is a condition characterized by a low blood pH (< 7.35) due to a primary decrease in plasma bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) concentration. It reflects an accumulation of acid or a loss of base in the body.
Etiology
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The anion gap is calculated as:
AG = [Na⁺] – ([Cl⁻] + [HCO₃⁻])
Normal range: 8–12 mEq/L
An elevated AG indicates the presence of unmeasured anions.
Causes of HAGMA:
Lactic acidosis (shock, sepsis, hypoxia)
Ketoacidosis (diabetes, starvation, alcohol)
Renal failure (uremia – accumulation of phosphates, sulfates)
Toxins:
Methanol → formic acid
Ethylene glycol → oxalic acid
Salicylates (aspirin overdose)
2. Normal Anion Gap Metabolic Acidosis (NAGMA)
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Causes of NAGMA:
Diarrhea (loss of HCO₃⁻)
Renal tubular acidosis (RTA)
Ureterosigmoidostomy
Early renal failure
Acetazolamide use
Pathophysiology
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Respiratory compensation: Hyperventilation to blow off CO₂ (Kussmaul respiration)
Renal compensation (if intact): Increased acid excretion and HCO₃⁻ regeneration
If compensation fails or the acidosis is severe, cellular enzyme systems become impaired, leading to:
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Arrhythmias
CNS depression
Hyperkalemia (K⁺ shifts out of cells)
Clinical Features
Symptoms may vary depending on the underlying cause, but common signs include:
Rapid, deep breathing (Kussmaul respiration)
Fatigue and weakness
Confusion or lethargy
Nausea and vomiting
Hypotension and shock (in severe cases)
Diagnosis
1. Arterial Blood Gas (ABG):
Low pH (<7.35)
Low HCO₃⁻
Compensatory ↓ PaCO₂
2. Anion Gap Calculation
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- 1. Presented By: Warda Aziz (101631058) Huba Akhtar(101631022) Shifa Idrees (101631049) Amber Wajid (101631002) Group No: 05 Double Linked List
- 2. TOC: • LIST • LINKED LIST • PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION • ADVANTAGES • DISADVANTAGES • DOUBLE LINKED LIST • EXPLANATION • POINTS TO BE NOTED • OPERATIONS • INSERTION • DELETION • DISPLAY • CODE • ADVANTAGES • DISADVANTAGES
- 3. List???
- 4. Definition: A list is a collection of same type of objects. It can be : linked list double linked list circular linked list double and circular linked list
- 5. linked list
- 6. Definition: • A data structure that consists of a sequence of data record such that in each record there is a field that contains a reference of next record in a sequence.
- 7. A sequence of data structures, which are connected together via links. Linked list is a sequence of links which contains items. Each link contains a connection to another link.
- 9. ADVANTAGES 4: No need to define initial size of the list 3: Addition/removal from the mi ddle 1: Stacks and queues can be impleme nted 2: Insertion and deletion is faster
- 10. Disadvantages More memory than arrays! sequential order, read from the beginning time to access individual elements one way direction reverse traversing!!!
- 12. Definition: Double linked list is a sequence of elements in which every element has links to its previous element and next element in the sequence.. Or Double linked list is a two-way list because one can move in either from left to right or fr om right to left.
- 13. Explanation: Every node has link to its previous node and next node . So , we can traverse forward by using next field and can traverse backward by using previous field. Every node in double linked list contains three fields.
- 14. value of that node Points to a previous node points to next node
- 16. P O I N T S T O B E N O T E D : In double linked list ,the first node must be always pointed by HEAD. Always the previous field of the first node must be NULL. Always the next field of the last node must be NULL.
- 17. Operations: In a double linked list , we perform the following operations… 1. Insertion 2. Deletion 3. Display
- 18. Insertion: In double linked list ,the insertion operation ca n be performed in three ways as follows… 1. Inserting At Beginning of the list 2. Inserting At End of the List 3. Inserting At Specific Location in the list
- 19. Deletion : In double linked list ,the deletion operation ca n be performed in three ways as follows… 1. Deletion At Beginning of the list 2. Deletion At End of the List 3. Deletion At Specific Location in the list
- 20. Displaying: Double linked list can be Displayed by writing a Piece of Code in your Program..
- 22. • We can Insert a cabin • We can Remove Cabin in the Same Way • We can put passengers in the cabin from different positions • We can check them out • We can change them • We can and have to check its state at each time
- 23. • A Passenger • A Front Gate Administrator • A Back Gate Administrator Value Previous Node Next Node
- 24. ADVANTAGES:- 1) We can traverse in both direction i.e from starting to end & as well as from end to starti ng. 2) It is easy to reverse the linked list. 3) If we are at a node, the we can go at any node. But in linked list , it is not possible to r each the previous node.
- 25. Disadvantages: 1) it requires more space per node because extra fie ld is required for pointer to previous node. 2) Insertion and deletion take more time than line a re linked list because more pointer operations are r equired than linear linked list