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Contents vii
Chapter 8 Relational Database Design
8.1 Features of Good Relational
Designs 323
8.2 Atomic Domains and First Normal
Form 327
8.3 Decomposition Using Functional
Dependencies 329
8.4 Functional-Dependency Theory 338
8.5 Algorithms for Decomposition 348
8.6 Decomposition Using Multivalued
Dependencies 355
8.7 More Normal Forms 360
8.8 Database-Design Process 361
8.9 Modeling Temporal Data 364
8.10 Summary 367
Exercises 368
Bibliographical Notes 374
Chapter 9 Application Design and Development
9.1 Application Programs and User
Interfaces 375
9.2 Web Fundamentals 377
9.3 Servlets and JSP 383
9.4 Application Architectures 391
9.5 Rapid Application Development 396
9.6 Application Performance 400
9.7 Application Security 402
9.8 Encryption and Its Applications 411
9.9 Summary 417
Exercises 419
PART THREE DATA STORAGE AND QUERYING
Chapter 10 Storage and File Structure
10.1 Overview of Physical Storage
Media 429
10.2 Magnetic Disk and Flash Storage 432
10.3 RAID 441
10.4 Tertiary Storage 449
10.5 File Organization 451
10.6 Organization of Records in Files 457
10.7 Data-Dictionary Storage 462
10.8 Database Buffer 464
10.9 Summary 468
Exercises 470
Chapter 11 Indexing and Hashing
11.1 Basic Concepts 475
11.2 Ordered Indices 476
11.3 B+
-Tree Index Files 485
11.4 B+
-Tree Extensions 500
11.5 Multiple-Key Access 506
11.6 Static Hashing 509
11.7 Dynamic Hashing 515
11.8 Comparison of Ordered Indexing and
Hashing 523
11.9 Bitmap Indices 524
11.10 Index Definition in SQL 528
11.11 Summary 529
Exercises 532

viii Contents
Chapter 12 Query Processing
12.1 Overview 537
12.2 Measures of Query Cost 540
12.3 Selection Operation 541
12.4 Sorting 546
12.5 Join Operation 549
12.6 Other Operations 563
12.7 Evaluation of Expressions 567
12.8 Summary 572
Exercises 574
Chapter 13 Query Optimization
13.1 Overview 579
13.2 Transformation of Relational
Expressions 582
13.3 Estimating Statistics of Expression
Results 590
13.4 Choice of Evaluation Plans 598
13.5 Materialized Views** 607
13.6 Advanced Topics in Query
Optimization** 612
13.7 Summary 615
Exercises 617
PART FOUR TRANSACTION MANAGEMENT
Chapter 14 Transactions
14.1 Transaction Concept 627
14.2 A Simple Transaction Model 629
14.3 Storage Structure 632
14.4 Transaction Atomicity and
Durability 633
14.5 Transaction Isolation 635
14.6 Serializability 641
14.7 Transaction Isolation and
Atomicity 646
14.8 Transaction Isolation Levels 648
14.9 Implementation of Isolation Levels 650
14.10 Transactions as SQL Statements 653
14.11 Summary 655
Exercises 657
Chapter 15 Concurrency Control
15.1 Lock-Based Protocols 661
15.2 Deadlock Handling 674
15.3 Multiple Granularity 679
15.4 Timestamp-Based Protocols 682
15.5 Validation-Based Protocols 686
15.6 Multiversion Schemes 689
15.7 Snapshot Isolation 692
15.8 Insert Operations, Delete Operations,
and Predicate Reads 697
15.9 Weak Levels of Consistency in
Practice 701
15.10 Concurrency in Index Structures** 704
15.11 Summary 708
Exercises 712

Contents ix
Chapter 16 Recovery System
16.1 Failure Classification 721
16.2 Storage 722
16.3 Recovery and Atomicity 726
16.4 Recovery Algorithm 735
16.5 Buffer Management 738
16.6 Failure with Loss of Nonvolatile
Storage 743
16.7 Early Lock Release and Logical Undo
Operations 744
16.8 ARIES** 750
16.9 Remote Backup Systems 756
16.10 Summary 759
Exercises 762
PART FIVE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Chapter 17 Database-System Architectures
17.1 Centralized and Client–Server
Architectures 769
17.2 Server System Architectures 772
17.3 Parallel Systems 777
17.4 Distributed Systems 784
17.5 Network Types 788
17.6 Summary 791
Exercises 793
Chapter 18 Parallel Databases
18.1 Introduction 797
18.2 I/O Parallelism 798
18.3 Interquery Parallelism 802
18.4 Intraquery Parallelism 803
18.5 Intraoperation Parallelism 804
18.6 Interoperation Parallelism 813
18.7 Query Optimization 814
18.8 Design of Parallel Systems 815
18.9 Parallelism on Multicore
Processors 817
18.10 Summary 819
Exercises 821
Chapter 19 Distributed Databases
19.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
Databases 825
19.2 Distributed Data Storage 826
19.3 Distributed Transactions 830
19.4 Commit Protocols 832
19.5 Concurrency Control in Distributed
Databases 839
19.6 Availability 847
19.7 Distributed Query Processing 854
19.8 Heterogeneous Distributed
Databases 857
19.9 Cloud-Based Databases 861
19.10 Directory Systems 870
19.11 Summary 875
Exercises 879

x Contents
PART SIX DATA WAREHOUSING, DATA
MINING, AND INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
Chapter 20 Data Warehousing and Mining
20.1 Decision-Support Systems 887
20.2 Data Warehousing 889
20.3 Data Mining 893
20.4 Classification 894
20.5 Association Rules 904
20.6 Other Types of Associations 906
20.7 Clustering 907
20.8 Other Forms of Data Mining 908
20.9 Summary 909
Exercises 911
Chapter 21 Information Retrieval
21.1 Overview 915
21.2 Relevance Ranking Using Terms 917
21.3 Relevance Using Hyperlinks 920
21.4 Synonyms, Homonyms, and
Ontologies 925
21.5 Indexing of Documents 927
21.6 Measuring Retrieval Effectiveness 929
21.7 Crawling and Indexing the Web 930
21.8 Information Retrieval: Beyond Ranking
of Pages 931
21.9 Directories and Categories 935
21.10 Summary 937
Exercises 939
PART SEVEN SPECIALTY DATABASES
Chapter 22 Object-Based Databases
22.1 Overview 945
22.2 Complex Data Types 946
22.3 Structured Types and Inheritance in
SQL 949
22.4 Table Inheritance 954
22.5 Array and Multiset Types in SQL 956
22.6 Object-Identity and Reference Types in
SQL 961
22.7 Implementing O-R Features 963
22.8 Persistent Programming
Languages 964
22.9 Object-Relational Mapping 973
22.10 Object-Oriented versus
Object-Relational 973
22.11 Summary 975
Exercises 976
Chapter 23 XML
23.1 Motivation 981
23.2 Structure of XML Data 986
23.3 XML Document Schema 990
23.4 Querying and Transformation 998
23.5 Application Program Interfaces to
XML 1008
23.6 Storage of XML Data 1009
23.7 XML Applications 1016
23.8 Summary 1019
Exercises 1021

Contents xi
PART EIGHT ADVANCED TOPICS
Chapter 24 Advanced Application Development
24.1 Performance Tuning 1029
24.2 Performance Benchmarks 1045
24.3 Other Issues in Application
Development 1048
24.4 Standardization 1051
24.5 Summary 1056
Exercises 1057
Chapter 25 Spatial and Temporal Data and Mobility
25.1 Motivation 1061
25.2 Time in Databases 1062
25.3 Spatial and Geographic Data 1064
25.4 Multimedia Databases 1076
25.5 Mobility and Personal Databases 1079
25.6 Summary 1085
Exercises 1087
Chapter 26 Advanced Transaction Processing
26.1 Transaction-Processing Monitors 1091
26.2 Transactional Workflows 1096
26.3 E-Commerce 1102
26.4 Main-Memory Databases 1105
26.5 Real-Time Transaction Systems 1108
26.6 Long-Duration Transactions 1109
26.7 Summary 1115
Exercises 1117
PART NINE CASE STUDIES
Chapter 27 PostgreSQL
27.1 Introduction 1123
27.2 User Interfaces 1124
27.3 SQL Variations and Extensions 1126
27.4 Transaction Management in
PostgreSQL 1137
27.5 Storage and Indexing 1146
27.6 Query Processing and
Optimization 1151
27.7 System Architecture 1154
Chapter 28 Oracle
28.1 Database Design and Querying
Tools 1157
Optimization 1172
28.5 Concurrency Control and
Recovery 1180
28.7 Replication, Distribution, and External
Data 1188
28.8 Database Administration Tools 1189
28.9 Data Mining 1191

xii Contents
Chapter 29 IBM DB2 Universal Database
29.1 Overview 1193
29.2 Database-Design Tools 1194
29.5 Multidimensional Clustering 1203
Optimization 1207
29.7 Materialized Query Tables 1212
29.8 Autonomic Features in DB2 1214
29.9 Tools and Utilities 1215
29.10 Concurrency Control and
Recovery 1217
29.12 Replication, Distribution, and External
Data 1220
29.13 Business Intelligence Features 1221
Chapter 30 Microsoft SQL Server
30.1 Management, Design, and Querying
Tools 1223
Optimization 1236
30.5 Concurrency and Recovery 1241
30.7 Data Access 1248
30.8 Distributed Heterogeneous Query
Processing 1250
30.9 Replication 1251
30.10 Server Programming in .NET 1253
30.11 XML Support 1258
30.12 SQL Server Service Broker 1261
30.13 Business Intelligence 1263
PART TEN APPENDICES
Appendix A Detailed University Schema
A.1 Full Schema 1271
A.2 DDL 1272
A.3 Sample Data 1276
Appendix B Advanced Relational Design (contents online)
B.1 Multivalued Dependencies B1
B.3 Domain-Key Normal Form B8
B.4 Summary B10
Exercises B10
Bibliographical Notes B12
Appendix C Other Relational Query Languages (contents online)
C.1 Query-by-Example C1
C.2 Microsoft Access C9
C.3 Datalog C11
C.4 Summary C25
Exercises C26
Bibliographical Notes C30

Contents xiii
Appendix D Network Model (contents online)
D.1 Basic Concepts D1
D.2 Data-Structure Diagrams D2
D.3 The DBTG CODASYL Model D7
D.4 DBTG Data-Retrieval Facility D13
D.5 DBTG Update Facility D20
D.6 DBTG Set-Processing Facility D22
D.7 Mapping of Networks to Files D27
D.8 Summary D31
Exercises D32
Bibliographical Notes D35
Appendix E Hierarchical Model (contents online)
E.1 Basic Concepts E1
E.2 Tree-Structure Diagrams E2
E.3 Data-Retrieval Facility E13
E.4 Update Facility E17
E.5 Virtual Records E20
E.6 Mapping of Hierarchies to Files E22
E.7 The IMS Database System E24
E.8 Summary E25
Exercises E26
Bibliographical Notes E29
Bibliography 1283
Index 1315

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Preface
Database management has evolved from a specialized computer application to a
central component of a modern computing environment, and, as a result, knowl-
edge about database systems has become an essential part of an education in
computer science. In this text, we present the fundamental concepts of database
management. These concepts include aspects of database design, database lan-
guages, and database-system implementation.
This text is intended for a first course in databases at the junior or senior
undergraduate, or first-year graduate, level. In addition to basic material for
a first course, the text contains advanced material that can be used for course
supplements, or as introductory material for an advanced course.
We assume only a familiarity with basic data structures, computer organi-
zation, and a high-level programming language such as Java, C, or Pascal. We
present concepts as intuitive descriptions, many of which are based on our run-
ning example of a university. Important theoretical results are covered, but formal
proofs are omitted. In place of proofs, figures and examples are used to suggest
why a result is true. Formal descriptions and proofs of theoretical results may
be found in research papers and advanced texts that are referenced in the biblio-
graphical notes.
The fundamental concepts and algorithms covered in the book are often
based on those used in existing commercial or experimental database systems.
Our aim is to present these concepts and algorithms in a general setting that is
not tied to one particular database system. Details of particular database systems
are discussed in Part 9, “Case Studies.”
In this, the sixth edition of Database System Concepts, we have retained the
overall style of the prior editions while evolving the content and organization to
reflect the changes that are occurring in the way databases are designed, managed,
and used. We have also taken into account trends in the teaching of database
concepts and made adaptations to facilitate these trends where appropriate.
xv

xvi Preface
Organization
The text is organized in nine major parts, plus five appendices.
• Overview (Chapter 1). Chapter 1 provides a general overview of the nature
and purpose of database systems. We explain how the concept of a database
system has developed, what the common features of database systems are,
what a database system does for the user, and how a database system in-
terfaces with operating systems. We also introduce an example database
application: a university organization consisting of multiple departments,
instructors, students, and courses. This application is used as a running ex-
ample throughout the book. This chapter is motivational, historical, and ex-
planatory in nature.
• Part 1: Relational Databases (Chapters 2 through 6). Chapter 2 introduces
the relational model of data, covering basic concepts such as the structure
of relational databases, database schemas, keys, schema diagrams, relational
query languages, and relational operations. Chapters 3, 4, and 5 focus on the
most influential of the user-oriented relational languages: SQL. Chapter 6 cov-
ers the formal relational query languages: relational algebra, tuple relational
calculus, and domain relational calculus.
The chapters in this part describe data manipulation: queries, updates, in-
sertions, and deletions, assuming a schema design has been provided. Schema
design issues are deferred to Part 2.
• Part 2: Database Design (Chapters 7 through 9). Chapter 7 provides an
overview of the database-design process, with major emphasis on database
design using the entity-relationship data model. The entity-relationship data
model provides a high-level view of the issues in database design, and of the
problems that we encounter in capturing the semantics of realistic applica-
tions within the constraints of a data model. UML class-diagram notation is
also covered in this chapter.
Chapter 8 introduces the theory of relational database design. The the-
ory of functional dependencies and normalization is covered, with emphasis
on the motivation and intuitive understanding of each normal form. This
chapter begins with an overview of relational design and relies on an intu-
itive understanding of logical implication of functional dependencies. This
allows the concept of normalization to be introduced prior to full coverage
of functional-dependency theory, which is presented later in the chapter. In-
structors may choose to use only this initial coverage in Sections 8.1 through
8.3 without loss of continuity. Instructors covering the entire chapter will ben-
efit from students having a good understanding of normalization concepts to
motivate some of the challenging concepts of functional-dependency theory.
Chapter 9 covers application design and development. This chapter empha-
sizes the construction of database applications with Web-based interfaces. In
addition, the chapter covers application security.

Preface xvii
• Part 3: Data Storage and Querying (Chapters 10 through 13). Chapter 10
deals with storage devices, files, and data-storage structures. A variety of
data-access techniques are presented in Chapter 11, including B+
-tree indices
and hashing. Chapters 12 and 13 address query-evaluation algorithms and
query optimization. These chapters provide an understanding of the internals
of the storage and retrieval components of a database.
• Part 4: Transaction Management (Chapters 14 through 16). Chapter 14 fo-
cuses on the fundamentals of a transaction-processing system: atomicity,
consistency, isolation, and durability. It provides an overview of the methods
used to ensure these properties, including locking and snapshot isolation.
Chapter 15 focuses on concurrency control and presents several techniques
for ensuring serializability, including locking, timestamping, and optimistic
(validation) techniques. The chapter also covers deadlock issues. Alterna-
tives to serializability are covered, most notably the widely-used snapshot
isolation, which is discussed in detail.
Chapter 16 covers the primary techniques for ensuring correct transac-
tion execution despite system crashes and storage failures. These techniques
include logs, checkpoints, and database dumps. The widely-used ARIES al-
gorithm is presented.
• Part 5: System Architecture (Chapters 17 through 19). Chapter 17 covers
computer-system architecture, and describes the influence of the underly-
ing computer system on the database system. We discuss centralized sys-
tems, client–server systems, and parallel and distributed architectures in this
chapter.
Chapter 18, on parallel databases, explores a variety of parallelization
techniques, including I/O parallelism, interquery and intraquery parallelism,
and interoperation and intraoperation parallelism. The chapter also describes
parallel-system design.
Chapter 19 covers distributed database systems, revisiting the issues
of database design, transaction management, and query evaluation and op-
timization, in the context of distributed databases. The chapter also cov-
ers issues of system availability during failures, heterogeneous distributed
databases, cloud-based databases, and distributed directory systems.
• Part 6: Data Warehousing, Data Mining, and Information Retrieval (Chap-
ters 20 and 21). Chapter 20 introduces the concepts of data warehousing
and data mining. Chapter 21 describes information-retrieval techniques for
querying textual data, including hyperlink-based techniques used in Web
search engines.
Part 6 uses the modeling and language concepts from Parts 1 and 2, but
does not depend on Parts 3, 4, or 5. It can therefore be incorporated easily
into a course that focuses on SQL and on database design.

xviii Preface
• Part 7: Specialty Databases (Chapters 22 and 23). Chapter 22 covers object-
based databases. The chapter describes the object-relational data model,
which extends the relational data model to support complex data types, type
inheritance, and object identity. The chapter also describes database access
from object-oriented programming languages.
Chapter 23 covers the XML standard for data representation, which is seeing
increasing use in the exchange and storage of complex data. The chapter also
describes query languages for XML.
• Part 8: Advanced Topics (Chapters 24 through 26). Chapter 24 covers ad-
vanced issues in application development, including performance tuning,
performance benchmarks, database-application testing, and standardization.
Chapter 25 covers spatial and geographic data, temporal data, multimedia
data, and issues in the management of mobile and personal databases.
Finally, Chapter 26 deals with advanced transaction processing. Top-
ics covered in the chapter include transaction-processing monitors, transac-
tional workflows, electronic commerce, high-performance transaction sys-
tems, real-time transaction systems, and long-duration transactions.
• Part 9: Case Studies (Chapters 27 through 30). In this part, we present case
studies of four of the leading database systems, PostgreSQL, Oracle, IBM DB2,
and Microsoft SQL Server. These chapters outline unique features of each of
these systems, and describe their internal structure. They provide a wealth of
interesting information about the respective products, and help you see how
the various implementation techniques described in earlier parts are used
in real systems. They also cover several interesting practical aspects in the
design of real systems.
• Appendices. We provide five appendices that cover material that is of histor-
ical nature or is advanced; these appendices are available only online on the
Web site of the book (http://www.db-book.com). An exception is Appendix A,
which presents details of our university schema including the full schema,
DDL, and all the tables. This appendix appears in the actual text.
Appendix B describes other relational query languages, including QBE
Microsoft Access, and Datalog.
Appendix C describes advanced relational database design, including the
theory of multivalued dependencies, join dependencies, and the project-join
and domain-key normal forms. This appendix is for the benefit of individuals
who wish to study the theory of relational database design in more detail,
and instructors who wish to do so in their courses. This appendix, too, is
available only online, on the Web site of the book.
Although most new database applications use either the relational model
or the object-relational model, the network and hierarchical data models are
still in use in some legacy applications. For the benefit of readers who wish to
learn about these data models, we provide appendices describing the network
and hierarchical data models, in Appendices D and E respectively.

Preface xix
The Sixth Edition
The production of this sixth edition has been guided by the many comments and
suggestions we received concerning the earlier editions, by our own observations
while teaching at Yale University, Lehigh University, and IIT Bombay, and by our
analysis of the directions in which database technology is evolving.
We have replaced the earlier running example of bank enterprise with a uni-
versity example. This example has an immediate intuitive connection to students
that assists not only in remembering the example, but, more importantly, in gain-
ing deeper insight into the various design decisions that need to be made.
We have reorganized the book so as to collect all of our SQL coverage together
and place it early in the book. Chapters 3, 4, and 5 present complete SQL coverage.
Chapter 3 presents the basics of the language, with more advanced features in
Chapter 4. In Chapter 5, we present JDBC along with other means of accessing
SQL from a general-purpose programming language. We present triggers and re-
cursion, and then conclude with coverage of online analytic processing (OLAP).
Introductory courses may choose to cover only certain sections of Chapter 5 or
defer sections until after the coverage of database design without loss of continu-
ity.
Beyond these two major changes, we revised the material in each chapter,
bringing the older material up-to-date, adding discussions on recent develop-
ments in database technology, and improving descriptions of topics that students
found difficult to understand. We have also added new exercises and updated
references. The list of specific changes includes the following:
• Earlier coverage of SQL. Many instructors use SQL as a key component of term
projects (see our Web site, www.db-book.com, for sample projects). In order to
give students ample time for the projects, particularly for universities and
colleges on the quarter system, it is essential to teach SQL as early as possible.
With this in mind, we have undertaken several changes in organization:
◦ A new chapter on the relational model (Chapter 2) precedes SQL, laying
the conceptual foundation, without getting lost in details of relational
algebra.
◦ Chapters 3, 4, and 5 provide detailed coverage of SQL. These chapters also
discuss variants supported by different database systems, to minimize
problems that students face when they execute queries on actual database
systems. These chapters cover all aspects of SQL, including queries, data
definition, constraint specification, OLAP, and the use of SQL from within
a variety of languages, including Java/JDBC.
◦ Formal languages (Chapter 6) have been postponed to after SQL, and can
be omitted without affecting the sequencing of other chapters. Only our
discussion of query optimization in Chapter 13 depends on the relational
algebra coverage of Chapter 6.

xx Preface
• New database schema. We adopted a new schema, which is based on uni-
versity data, as a running example throughout the book. This schema is
more intuitive and motivating for students than the earlier bank schema, and
illustrates more complex design trade-offs in the database-design chapters.
• More support for a hands-on student experience. To facilitate following
our running example, we list the database schema and the sample relation
instances for our university database together in Appendix A as well as
where they are used in the various regular chapters. In addition, we provide,
on our Web site http://www.db-book.com, SQL data-definition statements for the
entire example, along with SQL statements to create our example relation
instances. This encourages students to run example queries directly on a
database system and to experiment with modifying those queries.
• Revised coverage of E-R model. The E-R diagram notation in Chapter 7 has
been modified to make it more compatible with UML. The chapter also makes
good use of the new university database schema to illustrate more complex
design trade-offs.
• Revised coverage of relational design. Chapter 8 now has a more readable
style, providing an intuitive understanding of functional dependencies and
normalization, before covering functional dependency theory; the theory is
motivated much better as a result.
• Expanded material on application development and security. Chapter 9 has
new material on application development, mirroring rapid changes in the
field. In particular, coverage of security has been expanded, considering its
criticality in today’s interconnected world, with an emphasis on practical
issues over abstract concepts.
• Revised and updated coverage of data storage, indexing and query op-
timization. Chapter 10 has been updated with new technology, including
expanded coverage of flash memory.
Coverage of B+
-trees in Chapter 11 has been revised to reflect practical
implementations, including coverage of bulk loading, and the presentation
has been improved. The B+
-tree examples in Chapter 11 have now been
revised with n = 4, to avoid the special case of empty nodes that arises with
the (unrealistic) value of n = 3.
Chapter 13 has new material on advanced query-optimization techniques.
• Revised coverage of transaction management. Chapter 14 provides full cov-
erage of the basics for an introductory course, with advanced details follow-
ing in Chapters 15 and 16. Chapter 14 has been expanded to cover the practical
issues in transaction management faced by database users and database-
application developers. The chapter also includes an expanded overview of
topics covered in Chapters 15 and 16, ensuring that even if Chapters 15 and 16
are omitted, students have a basic knowledge of the concepts of concurrency
control and recovery.

Preface xxi
Chapters 14 and 15 now include detailed coverage of snapshot isolation,
which is widely supported and used today, including coverage of potential
hazards when using it.
Chapter 16 now has a simplified description of basic log-based recovery
leading up to coverage of the ARIES algorithm.
• Revised and expanded coverage of distributed databases. We now cover
cloud data storage, which is gaining significant interest for business appli-
cations. Cloud storage offers enterprises opportunities for improved cost-
management and increased storage scalability, particularly for Web-based
applications. We examine those advantages along with the potential draw-
backs and risks.
Multidatabases, which were earlier in the advanced transaction processing
chapter, are now covered earlier as part of the distributed database chapter.
• Postponed coverage of object databases and XML. Although object-oriented
languages and XML are widely used outside of databases, their use in data-
bases is still limited, making them appropriate for more advanced courses,
or as supplementary material for an introductory course. These topics have
therefore been moved to later in the book, in Chapters 22 and 23.
• QBE, Microsoft Access, and Datalog in an online appendix. These topics,
which were earlier part of a chapter on “other relational languages,” are now
covered in online Appendix C.
All topics not listed above are updated from the fifth edition, though their overall
organization is relatively unchanged.
Review Material and Exercises
Each chapter has a list of review terms, in addition to a summary, which can help
readers review key topics covered in the chapter.
The exercises are divided into two sets: practice exercises and exercises. The
solutions for the practice exercises are publicly available on the Web site of the
book. Students are encouraged to solve the practice exercises on their own, and
later use the solutions on the Web site to check their own solutions. Solutions
to the other exercises are available only to instructors (see “Instructor’s Note,”
below, for information on how to get the solutions).
Many chapters have a tools section at the end of the chapter that provides
information on software tools related to the topic of the chapter; some of these
tools can be used for laboratory exercises. SQL DDL and sample data for the
university database and other relations used in the exercises are available on the
Web site of the book, and can be used for laboratory exercises.

xxii Preface
Instructor’s Note
The book contains both basic and advanced material, which might not be cov-
ered in a single semester. We have marked several sections as advanced, using
the symbol “**”. These sections may be omitted if so desired, without a loss of
continuity. Exercises that are difficult (and can be omitted) are also marked using
the symbol “**”.
It is possible to design courses by using various subsets of the chapters. Some
of the chapters can also be covered in an order different from their order in the
book. We outline some of the possibilities here:
• Chapter 5 (Advanced SQL) can be skipped or deferred to later without loss of
continuity. We expect most courses will cover at least Section 5.1.1 early, as
JDBC is likely to be a useful tool in student projects.
• Chapter 6 (Formal Relational Query Languages) can be covered immediately
after Chapter 2, ahead of SQL. Alternatively, this chapter may be omitted from
an introductory course.
We recommend covering Section 6.1 (relational algebra) if the course also
covers query processing. However, Sections 6.2 and 6.3 can be omitted if
students will not be using relational calculus as part of the course.
• Chapter 7 (E-R Model) can be covered ahead of Chapters 3, 4 and 5 if you so
desire, since Chapter 7 does not have any dependency on SQL.
• Chapter 13 (Query Optimization) can be omitted from an introductory course
without affecting coverage of any other chapter.
• Both our coverage of transaction processing (Chapters 14 through 16) and
our coverage of system architecture (Chapters 17 through 19) consist of an
overview chapter (Chapters 14 and 17, respectively), followed by chapters
with details. You might choose to use Chapters 14 and 17, while omitting
Chapters 15, 16, 18 and 19, if you defer these latter chapters to an advanced
course.
• Chapters 20 and 21, covering data warehousing, data mining, and informa-
tion retrieval, can be used as self-study material or omitted from an introduc-
tory course.
• Chapters 22 (Object-Based Databases), and 23 (XML) can be omitted from an
introductory course.
• Chapters 24 through 26, covering advanced application development, spatial,
temporal and mobile data, and advanced transaction processing, are suitable
for an advanced course or for self-study by students.
• The case-study Chapters 27 through 30 are suitable for self-study by students.
Alternatively, they can be used as an illustration of concepts when the earlier
chapters are presented in class.
Model course syllabi, based on the text, can be found on the Web site of the book.

Preface xxiii
Web Site and Teaching Supplements
A Web site for the book is available at the URL: http://www.db-book.com. The Web
site contains:
• Slides covering all the chapters of the book.
• Answers to the practice exercises.
• The five appendices.
• An up-to-date errata list.
• Laboratory material, including SQL DDL and sample data for the university
schema and other relations used in exercises, and instructions for setting up
and using various database systems and tools.
The following additional material is available only to faculty:
• An instructor manual containing solutions to all exercises in the book.
• A question bank containing extra exercises.
For more information about how to get a copy of the instructor manual and the
question bank, please send electronic mail to customer.service@mcgraw-hill.com.
In the United States, you may call 800-338-3987. The McGraw-Hill Web site for
this book is http://www.mhhe.com/silberschatz.
Contacting Us
We have endeavored to eliminate typos, bugs, and the like from the text. But, as
in new releases of software, bugs almost surely remain; an up-to-date errata list
is accessible from the book’s Web site. We would appreciate it if you would notify
us of any errors or omissions in the book that are not on the current list of errata.
We would be glad to receive suggestions on improvements to the book. We
also welcome any contributions to the book Web site that could be of use to
other readers, such as programming exercises, project suggestions, online labs
and tutorials, and teaching tips.
Email should be addressed to db-book-authors@cs.yale.edu. Any other corre-
spondence should be sent to Avi Silberschatz, Department of Computer Science,
Yale University, 51 Prospect Street, P.O. Box 208285, New Haven, CT 06520-8285
USA.
Acknowledgments
Many people have helped us with this sixth edition, as well as with the previous
five editions from which it is derived.

xxiv Preface
Sixth Edition
• Anastassia Ailamaki, Sailesh Krishnamurthy, Spiros Papadimitriou, and
Bianca Schroeder (Carnegie Mellon University) for writing Chapter 27 de-
scribing the PostgreSQL database system.
• Hakan Jakobsson (Oracle), for writing Chapter 28 on the Oracle database
system.
• Sriram Padmanabhan (IBM), for writing Chapter 29 describing the IBM DB2
database system.
• Sameet Agarwal, José A. Blakeley, Thierry D’Hers, Gerald Hinson, Dirk My-
ers, Vaqar Pirzada, Bill Ramos, Balaji Rathakrishnan, Michael Rys, Florian
Waas, and Michael Zwilling (all of Microsoft) for writing Chapter 30 de-
scribing the Microsoft SQL Server database system, and in particular José
Blakeley for coordinating and editing the chapter; César Galindo-Legaria,
Goetz Graefe, Kalen Delaney, and Thomas Casey (all of Microsoft) for their
contributions to the previous edition of the Microsoft SQL Server chapter.
• Daniel Abadi for reviewing the table of contents of the fifth edition and
helping with the new organization.
• Steve Dolins, University of Florida; Rolando Fernanez, George Washington
University; Frantisek Franek, McMaster University; Latifur Khan, University
of Texas - Dallas; Sanjay Madria, University of Missouri - Rolla; Aris Ouksel,
University of Illinois; and Richard Snodgrass, University of Waterloo; who
served as reviewers of the book and whose comments helped us greatly in
formulating this sixth edition.
• Judi Paige for her help in generating figures and presentation slides.
• Mark Wogahn for making sure that the software to produce the book, includ-
ing LaTeX macros and fonts, worked properly.
• N. L. Sarda for feedback that helped us improve several chapters, in particular
Chapter 11; Vikram Pudi for motivating us to replace the earlier bank schema;
and Shetal Shah for feedback on several chapters.
• Students at Yale, Lehigh, and IIT Bombay, for their comments on the fifth
edition, as well as on preprints of the sixth edition.
Previous Editions
• Chen Li and Sharad Mehrotra for providing material on JDBC and security
for the fifth edition.
• Marilyn Turnamian and Nandprasad Joshi provided secretarial assistance for
the fifth edition, and Marilyn also prepared an early draft of the cover design
for the fifth edition.

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"But after all—down there at your home—what sort of life were you
leading?"
"Oh, Antonio! I had dreams!"
Antonio understood the anguish in that cry, and tried to lull her
sorrow for the time being, administering as to a sick person an
innocuous soothing mixture.
"Listen," he said, "it's just that you're a bit homesick. You'll find that
in a little time you'll get used to it all. I admit our life is rather
cramped, but do you suppose the rich people are happy?"
"It's not riches I want!"
"What is it then? I'm not vulgar, am I? or stupid? After all, it's with
me you've got to live. Be reasonable. You shall make your own
surroundings just as you like them. Meantime, to cure you of your
homesickness you can go home to your own country whenever you
like."
The soothing mixture produced the desired effect. Regina raised a
radiant face.
"In the spring?" she cried impetuously, "in the spring?"
"Whenever you wish. And you'll see that in course of time——"
But the course of time only augmented Regina's trouble.
The night of San Stefano Antonio took her to the Costanzi Theatre,
to the Sedie.[3] She put on her smartest frock, her best trinkets, and
went to the theatre, resolved to be astonished at nothing, for had
she not already been to the theatre at Parma? The Costanzi was
magnificent; an enormous casket where the most beautiful pearls in
the capital shone on feminine shoulders resplendent with "Crema
Venus." Even the pit was splendid, a field of great flowers sprinkled
with the dew of gems and gold. And in spite of her experience at the

Parma theatre, Regina felt sufficiently bewildered. Her short-sighted
eyes, dazzled by the brilliant light, were half shut; and it was much
the same with the eyes of her soul. She raised her opera glass and
looked at one of the boxes. The lady there was plain in feature, but
extremely fashionable; Regina thought her painted, decked with
false hair, her eyes artificially darkened. None the less, she envied
her.
She looked round. Little by little her envy swelled, overflowed,
became hateful. She would have liked the theatre burned down.
Then she perceived that a lady near her was looking at the boxes
just as she was, perhaps with the same criminal envy in her heart.
She felt ashamed of herself, put down the glass, and after this did
not look at the seats above her again. But on her own level, in the
furthest row of the Poltrone,[4] she saw a long row of smartly
dressed men and women who always and only stared at the boxes.
No one looked at the Sedie. The people there were an inferior race,
or actually non-existent for the ladies and gentlemen in the Poltrone.
"We are nothing! We are the microbes which fill the void," thought
Regina.
Then she perceived another strange fact, that she herself felt for the
Sedie and the gallery the very same contempt which was felt by the
people of the boxes and the stalls.
Antonio thought she was enjoying the music and the spectacle as he
was himself; now and then he touched her hand and made some
pleasant remark.
"You look a real queen with that necklace!" he said, for instance.
"An exiled queen!" returned Regina under her breath.

FOOTNOTES:
[3] The cheapest reserved seats.
[4] Seats next above the Sedie.

CHAPTER V
Later, when she thought over that first year of marriage, Regina
divided it into many little chapters. Amongst them she attached
importance to the chapter of her first visit to the Princess Makuline.
It took place on a warm, cloudy evening at the beginning of January.
Antonio was missing, having been detained at the Department till
nine, doing extra work; but Arduina and Regina waited in the Piazza
dell' Indipendenza for Massimo, who was to escort them. The Piazza,
almost deserted, was illumined by the pale gold rays of the veiled
moon. The bare trees were scarce visible in the vaporous air, the
small, motionless flames of the street lamps seemed far away.
Regina, standing in the middle of the great square, was pleasantly
conscious of silence, solitude, immensity. For the first time since she
had been in Rome she caught herself admiring something.
"Come along!" said Massimo, arriving hurriedly, and brandishing a
pair of new gloves; "three-fifty they cost me! Woe to Madame if she
doesn't pay me with some hope!"
"I believe you'd be capable of marrying her," said Regina, with a
gesture of disgust.
"She'd like it," said Arduina.
"Shut up! The point is—should I like it?" said the young man. "I'm
not for sale."
Passing the Princess's little garden gate, Massimo said, "This is the
entrance for Madame's lovers!"

But they walked on and rang at the hall door of the villa, or rather of
the villas, for there were two; small but handsome houses, joined by
an aërial terrace or hanging garden.
"Like two little brothers holding each other's hands," said Regina,
with a sigh.
A servant in plain clothes opened the polished door, and disclosed
two great wolves, apparently alive, lying in ambush on the red rugs
of the entrance hall.
The rooms were much overheated. Thick carpets, skins of bears
spread before large low divans, themselves covered with furs,
exhaled what seemed the hot breath of wild beasts sleeping in the
sun—an atmosphere wild, voluptuous, noxious. Huge waving
branches of red-berried wild plants rose from tall metal vases. The
Princess, richly but clumsily dressed in black velvet and white lace,
was discoursing in French to two elderly ladies, telling them the
adventures of her aunt, wife of the man who had known Georges
Sand.
"At that time," she was saying, "my aunt was the best dressed
woman in Paris. Georges Sand described one of her costumes in the
Marquis de Villemer...."
Beyond the two elderly ladies, an old gentleman, shaven and bald,
his head shining like a bowl of pink china, lolled in an arm-chair and
listened sleepily.
Marianna, in a low pink dress, ran to the new-comers with her little
rat-like steps, and surveyed Regina inquisitively.
"You look very well, Madame," she said; "is there no news?"
"What news do you expect?" asked Regina.
Marianna giggled, her little eyes shining unnaturally. Regina could
not resist the suspicion that the rat was excited with wine, and she
felt a resurgence of the curious physical disgust with which the
Princess and this girl inspired her.

Madame at first paid scant attention to the Venutellis. Other guests
were arriving, the greater number elderly foreign ladies in dresses of
questionable freshness and fashion. Arduina soon got into
conversation with an unattractive gentleman whose round eyes and
flat nose surmounted an exaggerated jowl. Massimo followed in the
wake of Marianna, who came and went, running about, frisking and
shrieking. Regina was stranded between a stout lady who made a
few observations without looking at her, and the bald old gentleman
who said nothing at all. She soon grew bored, finding herself
neglected and forgotten, lost among all these fat superannuated
people, these old silk gowns which had outlived their rustle. How
tedious! Was this the world of the rich, the enchanted realm for
which she had pined?
"Regina shall not be seen here again," she told herself.
Presently she saw Arduina smiling and beckoning to her from the
distance; but just then the Princess came over, and put her small
refulgent hand in Regina's with an affectionate and familiar gesture.
"Won't you come and take a cup of tea?" she said.
Regina started to her feet overwhelmed by so much attention.
"How is your husband?" said the Princess, leading her to the supper-
room.
"Very well, thank you," said Regina, in a low voice; "he hasn't been
able to come to-night because——"
"Beg pardon?" said the Princess.
All the elderly ladies and gentlemen followed the hostess, and
seated themselves round the room, in which a sumptuous table was
laid. Marianna ran hither and thither, distributing the tea.
"Could you help?" she asked, passing Regina; "you seem like a girl.
Come with me."
Regina followed her to the table, but did not know what to do; she
upset a jug and blushed painfully.

"Here!" said Marianna, giving her a plate, "take that to the man like
a dog."
"Which man? Speak low!"
"The man beside your sister-in-law. He's an author."
Regina crossed the room shyly, carrying the plate, and imagining
every one was looking at her. There was consolation in the thought
that she was about to offer a slice of tart to an author.
"Oh, Signorina!" he exclaimed, with a deprecating bow.
"Signora, if you please!" said Arduina, "she's my sister-in-law."
"My compliments and my condolences," said the man, insolently; he
rolled his great eyes round the room and added, "In this company
you seem a child."
"Why condolences?" asked Arduina.
"Because she's your sister-in-law," replied he.
Regina perceived that the author was very impudent, and she
retreated to the table. Not finding Marianna she timidly possessed
herself of another plate and took it to Massimo, who, also neglected
and forgotten, was standing near the door.
"Oh, you're doing hostess, are you?" he said. "Look here! bring me a
glass of that wine in the tall, gold-necked bottle at the corner of the
table. Drink some yourself."
Regina went for it, but found the Princess herself pouring wine at
that moment from the bottle with the golden neck.
"Massimo would like a glass of that," she murmured ingenuously.
"Beg pardon?" said the Princess, who fortunately had not heard.
Regina, however, found a wine-glass ready filled, and carried it to
her brother-in-law; exquisite bouquet rose from the glass as
perfume from a flower.

"It's port, you know," said Massimo, with genuine gratitude; "thanks,
little sister-in-law! You're my salvation! 'Tis the wine of the modern
gods."
"You are facetious to-night."
"Hush! I'm bored to death. Let's go. We'll leave Arduina. Who's that
baboon-faced person she's got hold of?"
"That's an author."
"Connais pas," said the other, eating and drinking. "What a rabble!
No one but rabble."
"Just so," said Regina, "and we belong to it."
"On the contrary, we'll snap our fingers at it. No! we are young and
may some day be rich. Those folk are rich, but they'll never be
young, my dear!"
"Take care! I think you are right though."
"Then bring me another glass of port!" said Massimo, imploringly.
"Certainly not!"
The old ladies and gentlemen, mildly excited by the wines and the
tea, raised their voices, moved about, clustered in knots and circles.
In the confusion Regina again found herself beside the hostess.
"But you've had positively nothing!" said Madame; "come with me.
Have a glass of port? How's your husband?"
"The second time!" thought Regina; and she shouted, "Very well
indeed, thank you."
"Have you moved yet? How do you like your house? Come, drink
this! Have some sweets? The pastry's pretty good to-day. Oh,
Monsieur Massimo! won't you have another cup of tea? No? A glass
of port, then? Tell me, are you also at the Treasury?"
"No, Madame; in the War Office."

Marianna no sooner observed that the Princess was talking to the
Venutellis than she thrust her restless face behind Regina's shoulder;
and it struck the latter that this girl watched her patroness over
much.
"I've a bothersome affair on hand," said Madame, slowly; "some
money due in Milan which I want paid to me in Rome. I'm told I
must have a warrant from the Treasury, Monsieur Antonio must
come and speak to me to-morrow."
"I'll tell him the moment I get in," cried Regina.
Marianna said something in Russian, turning to Madame with an air
almost of command. The Princess replied with her usual calm, but
quickly afterwards she moved away.
"Now I must pay for the help you gave me," said Marianna to
Regina, pouring out a glass of a white liqueur. "Drink this."
"No, thanks."
"It's vodka. The Russian ladies get tipsy with this. See how I drink it!
I'm half tipsy already," she went on, raising the glass and looking
through it; "I don't mind! It has the opposite effect on me to what it
has on every one else. After drinking, I no longer speak the truth."
"I don't observe it," said Massimo, dryly. "So this is vodka, is it? It's
nasty."
"Oh, I've had none to speak of to-day!" said Marianna. She laughed
and sipped; then held the glass to Regina's lips and made her drink
too.
"Now we'll go and interrupt the idyll of the dog and the cat," said
Marianna, leading the way to the next room where Arduina and the
author were still tête-à-tête under the branches of the red-berried
plant.
Regina and Marianna sat down opposite to them on a divan of furs,
and Massimo remained standing. In the next room one of the old
ladies was playing "Se a te, O cara!"

Regina now felt an inexplicable content; the gentle yet impassioned
music, the warmth of the divan whose soft furriness suggested a
pussy cat to be stroked; the indefinable perfume with which the hot
air was charged, the vodka, too, which still pulsed in her throat—all
gave her the initial feelings of a pleasant intoxication. Arduina also
seemed excited. She spoke loud, in the tones which Regina had
noted in the flirtatious cousin, Claretta. She seemed no longer to
recognise her relations.
"What's the matter with the silly thing?" Regina asked herself, and
Marianna must have guessed her thought, for she said slyly, "They're
love-making."
Regina laughed unthinkingly. Then suddenly she felt shocked.
"Is it possible!" she murmured.
"Anything is possible," said the rat. "You are such a child as yet; but
in time you'll see—anything is possible."

CHAPTER VI
Next day Antonio went to the Princess about the collection of her rents.
She invited him and his wife to dinner on Sunday, and this invitation was
followed by others. Regina accepted them all, but unwillingly. The dinners
were magnificent, served by pompous men servants, whose solemnity,
said Antonio, spoiled his digestion. Regina found the entertainments dull,
and came away out of temper. The guests were elderly foreigners or
obscure Italian poets and artists; their conversation might have been
interesting, for it touched on letters, art, the theatre, matters of
palpitating contemporary life, but only stale commonplaces were uttered,
and Regina heard nothing at all correspondent to the ideas sparkling in
her own mind.
She was bored; yet no sooner was she back in the atmosphere of Casa
Venutelli than she thought enviously of the Princess's saloons, where the
servants passed and waited, silent and automatic as machines, where all
was beauty, luxury, splendour, and the light itself seemed to shine by
enchantment.
At last the day came when Antonio and his wife chose the furniture for
their own Apartment in Via Massimo d'Azeglio.
"We'll go on Sunday and settle how to arrange it," said Antonio, and
Regina thought dolefully of all the fatigue and worry awaiting her.
"Fancy coping with a servant!" she reflected, panic-struck.
On Sunday morning they went to their little habitation. It was late in
January, a pure, soft morning with whiffs of spring in the air. Regina ran
up the hundred-odd steps, and when, panting and perspiring, she arrived
at her hall door she amused herself by ringing the bell.

"Tinkle, tinkle, tinkle! Who is there? Mr. Nobody! What fun going to visit
Mr. Nobody!"
Antonio opened with a certain air of mystery and marched in first. Then
he turned and made Regina a low bow. She looked round astonished, and
exclaimed, with faint irony, "But I thought this kind of thing only happened
in romances!"
The Apartment was all in complete order. Curtains veiled the half-open
windows. The large white bed stood between strips of carpet, upon which
were depicted yellow dogs running with partridges in their mouths. Even
in the kitchen nothing was missing or awry.
Antonio stood at the window, leaving Regina time to get over her surprise.
She hated herself because somehow she did not feel all the pleasurable
emotion which her husband might justly expect of her. However, she
understood quite well what she must do. She thought—
"I must kiss him and say, 'How good you are!'"
So she did kiss him, and said "How good you are!" quite cheerfully. His
eyes filled with boyish delight, and at sight of this she felt touched in
earnest.
"Antonio," she cried, "you really are good, and I am very wicked. But I'm
going to improve, I really, really am!"
And for a week or a fortnight she was good; docile and even merry. She
was very busy settling her treasures in the cabinets, her clothes in the
wardrobes, altering this table and that picture; never in her whole life had
she worked so hard! The first night she slept in the soft new bed, between
the fine linen sheets of her trousseau, she felt as if delivered from an
incubus, and about to begin a new life, with all the happiness, all the
renewed energy of a convalescent. By this time fine weather had come.
The Roman sky was cloudless; springtime fragrance filled the air; the city
noises reached Regina's rooms like the sound of a distant waterfall,
subdued and sweet. In the sun-dappled garden below, a thin curl of water
was flung by a tiny fountain into a tiny vase, dotted with tiny goldfish;
monthly roses bloomed; and a couple of white kittens chased each other
along the paths. The little garden seemed made expressly for the two
graceful little beasts.

Regina passed several happy days. But when all the things were safely
installed in the wardrobes and cabinets she found she had nothing more
to do. The servant, of whom she had thought with so much dread, looked
after everything, was well behaved and prettily mannered. She was an
expense, but worth it. Regina's only worry was making out the account for
the maid's daily purchases. She got used even to this; and again began to
be bored. She stood before her glass for long hours, brushing, washing
and dressing her hair, polishing her nails and teeth. She looked at herself
in profile, from this side and that, powdered her face, took to using
"Crema Venus," laced herself very tight. But afterwards, or indeed at the
moment, she asked with impatient and disgusted self-reproach, "Are you a
fool, Regina? What's all this for? What on earth is the good of it?"
Of her few visitors, almost all were tiresome relations; among them Aunt
Clara and Claretta. Aunt Clara, jealous of Arduina's aristocratic
acquaintances, had much to relate of banquets and receptions at which
she had assisted.
"And Claretta, as I need not say——"
Claretta admired herself in all the mirrors, ransacked Regina's toilet-table,
passed through the little Apartment like the wind, upsetting everything.
Regina hated the mother, hated the daughter, hated the whole connection,
including Arduina, who nevertheless took her about, introducing her to
countesses and duchesses at whose houses she met others of like rank.
"It's appalling the number of countesses in Rome," said Regina to her
husband.
She was partly amused, partly wearied; she was not offended when the
grand ladies failed to return her visits; and she no longer wondered at the
shocking things said in almost all the drawing-rooms about the people
most distinguished in the literary, the political, and even in the private
world.
"Anything is possible," said Marianna, "and what is most possible of all is
that the things they say are calumnies."
In the early spring Regina had a recrudescence of nostalgia and
discontent. The little Apartment began to be hot. She stood for hours at
the window with the nervous unquiet of a bird not yet used to its cage.
From the "Pussies' Garden" rose a smell of damp grass which induced in

her spasms of homesickness. Sometimes she looked down through her
eye-glass, and saw a certain short and plump, pale and bald young man,
strolling round and round the little vase into which the fountain wept tears
of tedium. Life was tedious also for that young man. Regina remembered
seeing him on the evening of San Stefano in a box at the Costanzi, his
face bloated and yellow as an unripe apricot; and she had included him in
her incendiary hatred. Now he, too, was bored. Was he bored because he
had come down into the garden, or had he come down into the garden
because he was bored? Sometimes he stood and teased the goldfish; then
he yawned and battered the flowers with his stick, the wistaria on the
walls, the monthly roses, the innocent daisies.
"He must beat something," thought Regina, and remembered that she
herself was itching to torment any one or anything. On rainy days—
frequent and tedious—she became depressed, even to hypochondria. Only
one thought comforted her—that of the return to her home. She counted
the days and the hours. Strange, childish recollections, distant fancies,
passed through her mind like clouds across a sad sky. Details of her past
life waked in her melting tenderness; she remembered vividly even the
humblest persons of the place, the most secret nooks in the house or in
the wood; with strange insistence she thought of certain little things which
never before had greatly struck her. For instance, there was an old
millstone, belonging to a ruined mill, which lay in the grass by the river-
side. The remembrance of that old grey millstone, resting after its labour
beside the very stream with which it had so long wrestled, moved Regina
almost to tears. Often she tried to analyse her nostalgia, asking herself
why she thought of the millstone, of the old blind chimney sweep, of the
portiner (ferryman), who had enormous hairy hands and was getting on
for a hundred; of the clean-limbed children by the green ditch, intent on
making straw ropes; of the little snails crawling among the leaves of the
plane-trees.
"I am an idiot!" she thought; yet with the thought came a sudden rush of
joy at the idea of soon again seeing the millstone, the ferryman, the
children, the green ditches, and the little snails.
And outside it rained and rained. Rome was drowned in mire and gloom.
Regina raged like a furious child, wishing that upon Rome a rain of mud
might fall for evermore, forcing all the inhabitants to emigrate and go
away. Then, then she would return to her birth-place, to the wide

horizons, the pure flowing river of her home; she would be born anew,
she would be Regina once more, a bird alive and free!
Antonio went out and came in, and always found her wrapped in her
homesick stupor, indifferent to everything about her.
"Let's take a walk, Regina!"
"Oh, no!"
"It would do you good."
"I am quite well."
"You can't be well. You are so dull. You don't care for me, that's what it
is!"
"Oh, yes, I do! And if I don't, how can I help it?"
Sometimes, indeed, she included even Antonio in the collective hatred
which she nourished against everything representative of the city. At those
moments he seemed an inferior person, bloodless and half alive, one
among all the other useless phantasms scarce visible in the rain, through
which she alone in her egotism and her pride loomed gigantic.
But the warm and luminous spring came at last, and troops of men,
women and flower-laden children spread themselves through the streets,
in the depths of which Regina's short-sighted eyes fancied silvery lakes. In
the fragrant evenings, bathed it would seem in golden dust, companies of
women, fresh as flowers in their new spring frocks, came down by Via
Nazionale, by the Corso, by Via del Tritone. Carriages passed heaped up
with roses, red motor-cars flew by, bellowing like young monsters drunk
with light, and even they were garlanded with flowers.
Regina walked and walked, on Antonio's arm, or sometimes alone; alone
among the crowd, alone in the wave of all those joyous women, whose
thoughtlessness she both envied and despised; alone among the smiling
parties of sisters, companions, friends, by not one of whom, however,
would she have been accompanied for anything in the world! One day, as
she was going up Piazza Termini, she saw Arduina in the famous black silk
dress with wrinkles on the shoulders. Regina would have avoided her
sister-in-law, but did not set about it soon enough.
"I've been to your house," said Arduina; "why are you never at home? it's
impossible to catch you. What are you always doing? Where have you

been? Even our mother complains of you. Why don't you have a baby?"
"Why don't you? And where are you going?" said Regina, with sarcasm.
"I'm going to the Grand Hotel, to see a very rich English 'miss.' You can
come too, if you like. She's worth it!"
Regina went, so anxious was she for something to do. The sunset tinged
the Terme and the trees with orange-red. From the gardens came the cry
of children and twitterings like the rustling of water from innumerable
birds. Higher than all else, above the transparent vastness of the Piazza,
above the fountain, which clear, luminous, pearly, seemed an immense
Murano vase, towered the Grand Hotel, its gold-lettered name sparkling
on its front like an epigraph on the façade of a temple.
There was a confusion of carriages before the columns of the entrance, of
servants in livery, of gentlemen in tall hats, of fashionably attired ladies. A
royal carriage with glossy, jet-black horses, was conspicuous among the
others.
"It must be the Queen," said Arduina. "I'd like to wait!"
"Good-bye to you, then," returned her sister-in-law, "where there is one
Regina there's no room for another!"
"Good heavens! what presumption!" laughed the other. "Well, then, come
on."
Arduina led the way through the carriages and through the smart crowd
which animated the hall; then humbly inquired of a waiter if Miss Harris
were at home. The waiter bent his head and listened, but without looking
at the two ladies.
"Miss Harris? I think she's at home. Take a seat," he replied absently, his
eyes on the distance.
Regina remembered Madame Makuline's awe-inspiring servants; this man
provoked not only awe, but a sort of terror. They went into the
conservatory, and Arduina looked about with respectful admiration. The
younger lady was silent, lost in the dream world she saw before her.
Apparently they had intruded into a fête. A strange light of ruddy gold
streamed from the glass roof; among the palm-trees, treading on rich
carpets, was a phantasmagoria of ladies dressed in silks and satins, with
long rustling trains, their heads, ears, necks, brilliant with jewels. Bursts of

laughter and the buzz of foreign voices mixed with the rattle of silver and
the ring of china cups. It was a palace of crystal; a world of joy, of fairy
creatures unacquainted with the realities of life, dwelling in the
enchantment of groves of palms, rosy in the light of dream!
"The realities of life!" thought Regina, "but is not this the reality of life?
It's the life of us mean little people which is the ugly dream!"
Just then a splendid creature, robed in yellow satin, who, as she passed,
left behind her the effulgence of a comet, crossed the conservatory, and
stopped to speak to two ladies in black.
"It's Miss Harris!" whispered Arduina; "she's coming!"
Regina had never imagined there could exist a being so beautiful and
luminous. She watched her with dilated eyes, while from the far end of
the conservatory breathed slow and voluptuous music overpowering the
voices, the laughter, the rattle of the cups. Miss Harris drew nearer.
Regina's eyes grew wild, she was overpowered by almost physical torture,
by burning sadness. The rosy sunset light brooding over the palms as in
an Oriental landscape, the warmth, the scent, the music, the dazzling
aspect of the wealthy foreigner, all produced in her a kind of nostalgia, the
atavic recollection of some wondrous world, where all life was pleasure
and from which she had been exiled. Ah! at that moment she realised
quite clearly what was the ill disease gnawing at her vitals! Ah! it was not
the regret, the nostalgia for her early home, for her childish past; it was
the death of the dreams which had filled that past, dreams which had
perfumed the air she had breathed, the paths she had trod, the place
where she had dwelt: dreams which were no fault of her own because
born with her, transmitted in her blood, the blood of a once dominant
race.
Miss Harris approached the corner where sat the two little bourgeois
ladies, trailing her long shining train, her whole elegant slimness
suggesting something feline. The two foreign ladies accompanied her
talking in incomprehensible French. Arduina had to get up and smile very
humbly before the Englishwoman recognised her, shook her hand, and
spoke with condescending affability. Then Miss Harris sat down, her long
tail wound round her legs like that of a reposing cat, and began to talk.
She was tired and bored; she had been for a drive in a motor, had had a
private audience of the Pope, and in half-an-hour was due at some great

lady's reception. She did not look at Regina at all. After a minute she
appeared to forget Arduina; a little later, the two foreign ladies also. She
seemed talking for her own ears; in her beauty and splendour she was
self-sufficient, like a star which scintillates for itself alone. From far and
near everybody watched her.
Regina trembled with humiliation. In her modest short frock she felt
herself disappearing; she was ashamed of her lace scarf; when Miss Harris
offered her a cup of tea she repulsed it with an inimical gesture. She felt
again that sense of puerile hatred which had assaulted her at the Costanzi
on the evening of San Stefano.
As they left the hotel she said to her sister-in-law, "I can't think what you
came for! Why are you so mean-spirited? Why did you listen so slavishly
to that woman who hardly noticed your presence?"
"But weren't you listening quite humbly, too?"
"I? I'd like to have seized and throttled you all! Good God, what fools you
women are!"
"My dear Regina," said the other, confounded, "I don't understand you!"
"I know you don't. What do you understand? Why do you go to such
places? What have you to do with people like that? Don't you take in that
they are the lords of the earth and we the slaves?"
"But we're the intelligent ones! We are the lords of the future! Don't you
hear the clatter of our wooden shoes going up and of their satin slippers
coming down?"
"We? What, you?" said Regina, contemptuously.
"Mind that carriage!" cried Arduina, pulling her back.
"You see? They drive over us! What's the good of intelligence? What is
intelligence compared with a satin train?"
"Oh, I see! You're jealous of the satin train," said the other, laughing
good-humouredly.
"Oh, you're a fool!" cried Regina, beside herself.
"Thanks!" said Arduina, unoffended.

Returned home, Regina threw herself on the ottoman in the ante-room,
and remained there nearly an hour, beating the devil's tattoo with her foot
in time to the ticking of the clock, which seemed the heart of the little
room. Her own heart was overflown by a wave of humiliating distress. Ah!
even the ridiculous Arduina had guessed what ailed her.
Daylight was dying in the adjacent room, and the dining-room, which
looked out on the courtyard, was already overwhelmed in heavy shadow.
The open door made a band of feeble light across the passage of the
ante-room, while in its angles the penumbra continually darkened.
Watching it, Regina reflected.
"The penumbra! What a horrid thing is the penumbra! Horrid? No, it's
worse! It's noxious—soul-stifling! Better a thousand times the full shadow,
complete darkness. In the shadow there is grief, desperation, rebellion—all
that is life; but in this half-light it's all tedium, want, agony. It's better to
be a beggar than a little bourgeois. The beggar can yell, can spit in the
face of the prosperous. The little bourgeois is silent; he's a dead soul, he
neither can nor ought to speak. What does he want? Hasn't he got the
competence already, which some day every one is to have? His share is
already given to him. If he asks for more he's called ambitious, egotistic,
envious. Even the idiots call him so! Satin trains—green and shining halls
like gardens spread out in the sun—motors like flying dragons! And the
gardens, the beautiful gardens 'half seen through little gates,' country
houses hidden among pines, like rosy women under green lace parasols!
That should be the heritage of the future, of the to-morrow, promised us
though not yet come. But no! all that is to disappear! The world is small
and can't be divided into more than two parts, the day and the night, the
light and the shade. But some day it's to be all penumbra! Every one's to
be like us, every one's to live in a little dark Apartment with interminable
stairs; all the streets are to be dusty, overrun by smelly trams, by troops
of middle-class women who will go about on foot, dressed with sham
elegance, wearing mock jewellery, carrying paper fans; joyous with a
pitiable joy. The whole world will be tedium and destitution. The beggars
won't have attained to the dreams which made them happy; the children
of the rich will live on nostalgia, remembering the dream which was once
reality to them. What will be the good of living then? Why am I living
now?"

Then suddenly she remembered three figures, all exactly alike; three
figures of an old man in a dreary room, who smiled and looked at each
other with humorous sympathy, like three friends who understand without
need of words. Work! Work! There's the secret of life!
The voice of the old Senator resounded still in Regina's soul. Since seeing
him she had learned his story; his wife, a beautiful woman, brilliant and
young, had killed herself, for what reason none could say. Work! Work!
That was the secret! Perhaps the old Senator, panegyrising the working
woman, had been thinking of his wife who had never worked.
Work! This was the secret of the world's future. All would eventually be
happy because all would work.
"No! I don't represent the future as I have fondly fancied. I belong to the
present—very much to the present! I am the parasite par excellence. I eat
the labour of my husband, and I devour his moral life as well, because he
loves me—loves me too much. I don't even make him happy. Why do I
live? What's the good of me? What use am I? I'm good for nothing but to
bear children; and, in point of fact, I don't want any children! I shouldn't
know how to bring them up! Besides, what's the good of bringing children
into the world? Wouldn't it be better I had never been born? What's the
good of life?"
Surely her soul had become involved in the shadow darkening round her!
Everything in her seemed dead. And then suddenly she thought of the
luminous evenings on the shores of her great river at home; and saw
again the wide horizons, the sky all violet and geranium colour, the infinite
depths of the waters, the woods, the plain. She passed along the banks,
the subdued splendour of all things reflected in her eyes, the water of rosy
lilac, the heavens which flamed behind the wood, the warm grass which
clothed the banks. Young willow-trees stretched out to drink the shining
water, and they drank, they drank, consumed by an inextinguishable
thirst. She passed on, and as the little willows drank, so she also drank in
dreams from the burning river. What limitless horizons! What deeps of
water! What tender distant voices carried by the waves, dying on the
night! Was it a call out of a far world? Was it the crying of birds from the
wood? Was it the woodpecker tapping on the poplar-tree?
Alas, no! it was her own foot beating the devil's tattoo; it was the clock
ticking away indifferently in the penumbra of the little room; it was the

caged canary moaning for nostalgia in the window opposite, above the
lurid abyss of the courtyard.
Regina jumped to her feet; she was rebellious and desperate, suffocated
by a sense of rage.
"I'll tell him the moment he comes in," she thought; "I'll cry, 'Why did you
take me from there? Why have you brought me to this place? What can I
do here? I must go away. I require air. I require light. You can't give me
light, you can't give me air, and you never told me! How was I to know
the world was like this? Away with all these gimcracks, all this lumber! I
don't want it. I only want air! air! air! I am suffocating! I hate you all! I
curse the city and the men who built it, and the fate which robs us even of
the sight of heaven!'"
She went to her room, and automatically looked in the glass. By the last
glimmer of day she saw her beautiful shining hair, her shining teeth, her
shining nails, her fine skin which (softened by a light stratum of "Crema
Venus") had almost the transparent delicacy of Miss Harris's. Her
resentment grew. She went to her dressing-table, snatched up the bottle
of "Crema" and dashed it against the wall. The bottle bounded off on the
bed without breaking. She picked it up and replaced it on the table.
"No! no! no!" she sobbed, throwing herself on the pillow, "I will not bear
it! I'll say to him, 'Do you see what I'm becoming? Do you see what you're
making me? To-day a soiling of the face, to-morrow soiling of the soul! I
will go away—I will go away—away! I will go back home. You are nothing
to me!' Yes, I will tell him the moment he comes in!"
When he came in he found her seated quietly at the table, busy with the
list of purchases for the following day. It was late, the lamps were lit, the
table was laid, the servant was preparing supper. The whole of the little
dwelling was pervaded by the contemptible yet merry hissing of the
frying-pan and the smell of fried artichokes. From the window, open
towards the garden, penetrated the contrasting fragrance of laurels and of
grass.
lire.
cent.
Milk 0.20
Bread 0.20

Wine 1.10
Meat 1.00
Flour 0.50
Eggs 0.50
Salad 0.05
Butter 0.60
Asparagus 0.50
——
L.
4.65
Antonio came over to the table, bent down, and looked at the paper on
which Regina was writing.
"I was here at six, and couldn't find you," he said.
"I was out."
"Listen. The Princess sent a note to the office asking me to go to her at
half-past six; so I went."
"What did she want?"
"Well—she's beginning to be a nuisance, you know—she wants me to
keep an eye on the man who speculates for her on the Stock Exchange."
Regina looked up and saw that Antonio's face was pale and damp.
"On the Stock Exchange? What does that mean?"
"What it means? I'll explain some time. But—well, really, that woman is
becoming a plague!"
"But if she pays you?" said Regina; "and are you good at speculating?"
"I only wish I had the opportunity!" he exclaimed, tossing his hat to the
sofa; "I wish I had a little of Madame's superfluous money! But this isn't a
case of speculating. I'm to study the state of the money-market and audit
the operations carried out by Cavaliere R—— on the Princess's account;
take note of the details of daily transactions; get information from the
brokers; in short, exercise rigorous control over all the fellow does."
"But," insisted Regina, "she'll pay you well, won't she?"
"Beg pardon?" he said, mimicking the Princess.

"How much will she pay you?" shouted Regina.
"A hundred lire or so. She's a skinflint, you know."
"Supper's on the table, Signora," announced the servant with her
accustomed elegant decorum.
During the meal Antonio expounded the operations on 'Change, and other
financial matters, talking with a certain enthusiasm. She appeared
interested in what he told her; yet while she listened her eyes shone with
the vague light of a thought very far away from what Antonio was saying.
That thought was straying in a dark and empty distance; like a blind man
feeling his way in a strange place, it sought and sought something to be a
point of rest, a support, or at least a sign.
Suddenly, however, Regina's eyes sparkled and returned to the world
about her.
"Why shouldn't you be Madame's confidential agent?" she said; "her
secretary? I remember what I dreamed the first night I saw her at
Arduina's—that she was dead and had left us her money!"
"It would be easy enough," said Antonio.
"To get the money?"
"No—the administration of her affairs. True, one would have to flatter and
cringe, and take people in, especially as she employs two or three others
in addition to the Cavaliere. One would have to intrigue against them all. I
don't care for that sort of business."
"Nor I," said Regina, stiffening.
She rose and moved to the window which overlooked the garden. Antonio
followed her. The night was warm and voluptuous. The scent of laurel rose
ever sweeter and stronger; patches of yellow light were spread over the
little garden paths like a carpet. Regina looked down, then raised her eyes
towards the darkened blue of the heavens and sighed, stifling the sigh in
a yawn.
"After all," said Antonio, pursuing his own line of thought, "are we not
happy? What do we lack?"
"Nothing and everything!"

"What is lacking to us, I say?" repeated Antonio, questioning himself
rather than his wife; "what do you mean by your 'everything'?"
"Do you see the Bear?" she asked, looking up, and pretending not to have
heard this question. He looked also.
"No, I don't——"
"Then we do lack something! We can't see the stars."
"What do you want with the stars? Leave them where they are, for they're
quite useless! If there were anything you really wanted you wouldn't be
crying for the stars."
"Then you think I am lacking in——?" She touched her forehead.
"So it seems!"
"Perhaps the deficiency is in you," she said quickly.
"Now you're insulting me, and I'll take you and pitch you out of the
window!" he jested, seizing her waist. "If my wits are deficient, it's
because you're making me lose them with your folly!"

CHAPTER VII
She was not guilty of folly in action, but certainly her words became
stranger and stranger. Antonio sometimes found them amusing;
more often they distressed him. Though seemingly calm, Regina
could not hide that she was under the dominion of a fixed idea.
What was she thinking about? Even when he held her in his arms,
wrapped in his tenderest embrace, Antonio felt her far,
immeasurably far, away from him. In the brilliant yet drowsy spring
mornings while the young pair still lay in the big white bed, Antonio
would repeat his questions to himself: "What do we lack! Are we not
happy?"
Through the half-shut windows soft light stole in and gilded the
walls. Infinite beatitude seemed to reign in the room veiled by that
mist of gold, fragrant with scent, lulled to a repose unshaken by the
noises of the distant world. In the profound sweetness of the nuptial
chamber Regina felt herself at moments conquered by that
somnolent beatitude. Antonio's searching question had its echo in
her soul also. What was it that they lacked? They were both of them
young and strong; Antonio loved her ardently, blindly. He lived in
her. And he was so handsome! His soft hands, his passionate eyes,
had a magic which often succeeded in intoxicating her. And yet in
those delicious mornings, at the moments when she seemed
happiest, while Antonio caressed her hair, pulling it down and
studying it like some precious thing, her face would suddenly cloud,
and she would re-commence her extravagant speeches.
"What are we doing with our life?"

Antonio was not alarmed.
"What are we doing? We are living; we love, we work, eat, sleep,
take our walks, and when we can we go to the play!"
"But that isn't living! Or, at least, it's a useless life, and I'm sick of
it!"
"Then what do you want to be doing?"
"I don't know. I'd like to fly! I don't mean sentimentally, I mean
really. To fly out of the window, in at the window! I'd like to invent
the way!"
"I've thought of it myself sometimes."
"You know nothing about it!" she said, rather piqued. "No, no! I
want to do something you couldn't understand one bit; which, for
that matter, I don't understand myself!"
"That's very fine!"
"It's like thirsting for an unfindable drink with a thirst nothing else
can assuage. If you had once felt it——"
"Oh, yes, I have felt it."
"No, you can't have felt it! You know nothing about it."
"You must explain more clearly."
"Oh, never mind! You don't understand, and that's enough. Let my
hair alone, please."
"I say, what a lot of split hairs you have! You ought to have them
cut, I was telling you——"
"What do I care about hair? It's a perfectly useless thing."
"Well," he said, after pretending to seek and to find a happy
thought, "why don't you become a tram-conductor?" and he imitated
the rumble of the tram and the gestures of the conductor.
"I won't demean myself by a reply," she said, and moved away from
him; but presently repented and said—

"Do the little bird!"
"I don't know how to do the little bird!"
"Yes, you do. Go on, like a dear!"
"You're making a fool of me. I understand that much."
"You don't understand a bit! You do the little bird so well that I like
to see you!"
He drew in his lips, puffed them out, opened and shut them like the
beak of a callow bird. She laughed, and he laughed for the pleasure
of seeing her laugh, then said—
"What babes we are! If they put that on the stage—good Lord, think
of the hisses!"
"Oh, the stage! That's false if you like! And the novel. If you wrote a
novel in which life was shown as it really is, every one would cry
'How unnatural!' I do wish I could write!—could describe life as I
understand it, as it truly is, with its great littlenesses and its mean
greatness! I'd write a book or a play which would astonish Europe!"
He looked at her, pretending to be so overwhelmed that he had no
words, and again she felt irritated.
"You don't understand anything! You laugh at me! Yet if I could——"
In spite of himself Antonio became serious.
"Well, why can't you?"
"Because first I should have to——No, I won't tell you. You can't
understand! Besides, I can't write; I don't know how to express
myself. My thoughts are fine, but I haven't the words. That's the way
with so many! What do you suppose great men, the so-called great
thinkers, are? Fortunate folk who know how to express themselves!
Nietzsche, for instance. Don't you think I and a hundred others have
all Nietzsche's ideas, without ever having read them? Only he knew
how to set them down, and we don't. I say Nietzsche, but I might
just as well say the author of the Imitation."

"You should have married an author," said Antonio, secretly jealous
of the man whom Regina had perhaps dreamed of but never met.
Again she felt vexed. "It's quite useless! You don't understand me. I
can't get on with authors a bit. Let me alone now. I told you not to
fiddle with my hair!"
"Stop! Don't go away! Let's talk more of your great thoughts. You
think me an idiot. But listen, I want to say one thing; don't laugh.
You want to do something wonderful. Well, an American author—
Emerson, I think—said to his wife, that the greatest miracle a
woman could perform is——"
"Oh, I know! To have a baby!" she replied, with a forced smile. "But
you see, I think humanity useless, life not worth living. Still, I don't
commit suicide, so I suppose I do accept life. I admit that a son
would be a fine piece of work. I'd enter on it with enthusiasm, with
pride, if I were sure my son wouldn't turn out just a little bourgeois
like us!"
"He might make a fortune and be a useful member of society."
"Nonsense! Dreams of a little bourgeois!" she said bitterly; "he
would be just as unhappy as we are!"
"But I am happy!" protested Antonio.
"If you are happy it shows you don't understand anything about it,
and so you are doubly unhappy," she said vehemently, her eyes
darkening disquietingly.
"My dear, you're growing as crazy as your great writers."
"There you are! the little bourgeois who doesn't know what he is
talking about!"
And so they went on, till Antonio looked at the clock and jumped up
with a start.
"It's past the time! My love, if you had to go down to the office
every day I assure you these notions would never come into your
head."

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