![
Changes made to table contents are not
physically saved on disk until, one of the
following occurs:
Database is closed
Program is closed
COMMIT command is used
Syntax:
COMMIT [WORK];
Will permanently save any changes made to
any table in the database
21
Saving Table Changes](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introductiontostructuredquerylanguagesql-230209161937-badb540a/85/Introduction-to-Structured-Query-Language-SQL-ppt-21-320.jpg)
![
UPDATE
Modify data in a table
Syntax:
UPDATE tablename
SET columnname = expression [, columname = expression]
[WHERE conditionlist];
If more than one attribute is to be updated in row,
separate corrections with commas
23
Updating Table Rows](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introductiontostructuredquerylanguagesql-230209161937-badb540a/85/Introduction-to-Structured-Query-Language-SQL-ppt-23-320.jpg)
![
DELETE
Deletes a table row
Syntax:
DELETE FROM tablename
[WHERE conditionlist ];
WHERE condition is optional
If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows from
specified table will be deleted
25
Deleting Table Rows](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introductiontostructuredquerylanguagesql-230209161937-badb540a/85/Introduction-to-Structured-Query-Language-SQL-ppt-25-320.jpg)
![
Select partial table contents by placing restrictions on
rows to be included in output
Add conditional restrictions to SELECT statement,
using WHERE clause
Syntax:
SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[ WHERE conditionlist ] ;
27
Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introductiontostructuredquerylanguagesql-230209161937-badb540a/85/Introduction-to-Structured-Query-Language-SQL-ppt-27-320.jpg)
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Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL).ppt
- 2. Explore basic commands and functions of SQL How to use SQL for data administration (to create tables, indexes, and views) How to use SQL for data manipulation (to add, modify, delete, and retrieve data) How to use SQL to query a database to extract useful information 2 Objectives
- 3. SQL functions fit into two broad categories: Data definition language SQL includes commands to: Create database objects, such as tables, indexes, and views Define access rights to those database objects Data manipulation language Includes commands to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data within database tables 3 Introduction to SQL
- 4. SQL is relatively easy to learn Basic command set has vocabulary of less than 100 words Nonprocedural language American National Standards Institute (ANSI) prescribes a standard SQL Several SQL dialects exist 4 Introduction to SQL (continued)
- 8. Examine simple database model and database tables that will form basis for many SQL examples Understand data environment 8 Data Definition Commands
- 10. Following two tasks must be completed: Create database structure Create tables that will hold end-user data First task: RDBMS creates physical files that will hold database Tends to differ substantially from one RDBMS to another 10 Creating the Database
- 11. Authentication Process through which DBMS verifies that only registered users are able to access database Log on to RDBMS using user ID and password created by database administrator Schema Group of database objects—such as tables and indexes—that are related to each other 11 The Database Schema
- 12. Data type selection is usually dictated by nature of data and by intended use Pay close attention to expected use of attributes for sorting and data retrieval purposes 12 Data Types
- 14. Use one line per column (attribute) definition Use spaces to line up attribute characteristics and constraints Table and attribute names are capitalized NOT NULL specification UNIQUE specification 14 Creating Table Structures
- 15. Primary key attributes contain both a NOT NULL and a UNIQUE specification RDBMS will automatically enforce referential integrity for foreign keys Command sequence ends with semicolon 15 Creating Table Structures (continued)
- 16. NOT NULL constraint Ensures that column does not accept nulls UNIQUE constraint Ensures that all values in column are unique DEFAULT constraint Assigns value to attribute when a new row is added to table CHECK constraint Validates data when attribute value is entered 16 SQL Constraints
- 17. When primary key is declared, DBMS automatically creates unique index Often need additional indexes Using CREATE INDEX command, SQL indexes can be created on basis of any selected attribute Composite index Index based on two or more attributes Often used to prevent data duplication 17 SQL Indexes
- 18. Adding table rows Saving table changes Listing table rows Updating table rows Restoring table contents Deleting table rows Inserting table rows with a select subquery 18 Data Manipulation Commands
- 19. INSERT Used to enter data into table Syntax: INSERT INTO columnname VALUES (value1, value2, … , valuen); 19 Adding Table Rows
- 20. When entering values, notice that: Row contents are entered between parentheses Character and date values are entered between apostrophes Numerical entries are not enclosed in apostrophes Attribute entries are separated by commas A value is required for each column Use NULL for unknown values 20 Adding Table Rows (continued)
- 21. Changes made to table contents are not physically saved on disk until, one of the following occurs: Database is closed Program is closed COMMIT command is used Syntax: COMMIT [WORK]; Will permanently save any changes made to any table in the database 21 Saving Table Changes
- 22. SELECT Used to list contents of table Syntax: SELECT columnlist FROM tablename; Columnlist represents one or more attributes, separated by commas Asterisk can be used as wildcard character to list all attributes 22 Listing Table Rows
- 23. UPDATE Modify data in a table Syntax: UPDATE tablename SET columnname = expression [, columname = expression] [WHERE conditionlist]; If more than one attribute is to be updated in row, separate corrections with commas 23 Updating Table Rows
- 24. ROLLBACK Used to restore database to its previous condition Only applicable if COMMIT command has not been used to permanently store changes in database Syntax: ROLLBACK; COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with data manipulation commands that are used to add, modify, or delete table rows 24 Restoring Table Contents
- 25. DELETE Deletes a table row Syntax: DELETE FROM tablename [WHERE conditionlist ]; WHERE condition is optional If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows from specified table will be deleted 25 Deleting Table Rows
- 26. INSERT Inserts multiple rows from another table (source) Uses SELECT sub query Query that is embedded (or nested) inside another query Executed first Syntax: INSERT INTO table name SELECT columnist FROM table name; 26 Inserting Table Rows with a Select Sub query
- 27. Select partial table contents by placing restrictions on rows to be included in output Add conditional restrictions to SELECT statement, using WHERE clause Syntax: SELECT columnlist FROM tablelist [ WHERE conditionlist ] ; 27 Selecting Rows with Conditional Restrictions
- 28. Selecting Rows with Conditional Restrictions (continued) 28
- 29. Selecting Rows with Conditional Restrictions (continued) 29
- 30. Perform operations within parentheses Perform power operations Perform multiplications and divisions Perform additions and subtractions 30 Arithmetic Operators: The Rule of Precedence
- 31. Arithmetic Operators: The Rule of Precedence (continued) 31
- 32. BETWEEN Used to check whether attribute value is within a range IS NULL Used to check whether attribute value is null LIKE Used to check whether attribute value matches given string pattern 32 Special Operators
- 33. IN Used to check whether attribute value matches any value within a value list EXISTS Used to check if subquery returns any rows 33 Special Operators (continued)
- 34. All changes in table structure are made by using ALTER command Followed by keyword that produces specific change Following three options are available: ADD MODIFY DROP 34 Advanced Data Definition Commands
- 35. ALTER can be used to change data type Some RDBMSs (such as Oracle) do not permit changes to data types unless column to be changed is empty 35 Changing a Column’s Data Type
- 36. Use ALTER to change data characteristics If column to be changed already contains data, changes in column’s characteristics are permitted if those changes do not alter the data type 36 Changing a Column’s Data Characteristics
- 37. Use ALTER to add column Do not include the NOT NULL clause for new column 37 Adding a Column
- 38. Use ALTER to drop column Some RDBMSs impose restrictions on the deletion of an attribute 38 Dropping a Column
- 40. SQL permits copying contents of selected table columns so that the data need not be reentered manually into newly created table(s) First create the PART table structure Next add rows to new PART table using PRODUCT table rows 40 Copying Parts of Tables
- 41. When table is copied, integrity rules do not copy, so primary and foreign keys need to be manually defined on new table User ALTER TABLE command Syntax: ALTER TABLE tablename ADD PRIMARY KEY(fieldname); For foreign key, use FOREIGN KEY in place of PRIMARY KEY 41 Adding Primary and Foreign Key Designations
- 42. DROP Deletes table from database Syntax: DROP TABLE tablename; 42 Deleting a Table from the Database
- 43. SQL provides useful functions that can: Count Find minimum and maximum values Calculate averages SQL allows user to limit queries to only those entries having no duplicates or entries whose duplicates may be grouped 43 Advanced Select Queries
- 49. Grouping Data 49
- 52. View is virtual table based on SELECT query Can contain columns, computed columns, aliases, and aggregate functions from one or more tables Base tables are tables on which view is based Create view by using CREATE VIEW command 52 Virtual Tables: Creating a View
- 53. Virtual Tables: Creating a View (continued) 53
- 54. Ability to combine (join) tables on common attributes is most important distinction between relational database and other databases Join is performed when data are retrieved from more than one table at a time Join is generally composed of an equality comparison between foreign key and primary key of related tables 54 Joining Database Tables
- 55. Alias can be used to identify source table Any legal table name can be used as alias Add alias after table name in FROM clause 55 Joining Tables with an Alias
- 56. SQL commands can be divided into two overall categories: Data definition language commands Data manipulation language commands The ANSI standard data types are supported by all RDBMS vendors in different ways Basic data definition commands allow you to create tables, indexes, and views 56 Summary
- 57. DML commands allow you to add, modify, and delete rows from tables The basic DML commands are SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, COMMIT, and ROLLBACK INSERT command is used to add new rows to tables SELECT statement is main data retrieval command in SQL 57 Summary (continued)
- 58. Many SQL constraints can be used with columns The column list represents one or more column names separated by commas WHERE clause can be used with SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements to restrict rows affected by the DDL command 58 Summary (continued)
- 59. Aggregate functions Special functions that perform arithmetic computations over a set of rows ORDER BY clause Used to sort output of SELECT statement Can sort by one or more columns and use either an ascending or descending order Join output of multiple tables with SELECT statement 59 Summary (continued)
- 60. Natural join uses join condition to match only rows with equal values in specified columns Right outer join and left outer join used to select rows that have no matching values in other related table 60 Summary (continued)