l7-pointers_ dynamic memory allocation c programming

August 30, 2024 Programming and Data Structure 1
Pointers

Introduction
• A pointer is a variable that represents the
location (rather than the value) of a data item.
• They have a number of useful applications.
– Enables us to access a variable that is defined
outside the function.
– Can be used to pass information back and forth
between a function and its reference point.
– More efficient in handling data tables.
– Reduces the length and complexity of a program.
– Sometimes also increases the execution speed.

Basic Concept
• Within the computer memory, every stored data
item occupies one or more contiguous memory
cells.
– The number of memory cells required to store a data
item depends on its type (char, int, double, etc.).
• Whenever we declare a variable, the system
allocates memory location(s) to hold the value of
the variable.
– Since every byte in memory has a unique address, this
location will also have its own (unique) address.

Contd.
• Consider the statement
int xyz = 50;
– This statement instructs the compiler to allocate a
location for the integer variable xyz, and put the
value 50 in that location.
– Suppose that the address location chosen is 1380.
xyz  variable
50  value
1380  address

Contd.
• During execution of the program, the system
always associates the name xyz with the
address 1380.
– The value 50 can be accessed by using either the
name xyz or the address 1380.
• Since memory addresses are simply numbers,
they can be assigned to some variables which
can be stored in memory.
– Such variables that hold memory addresses are
called pointers.
– Since a pointer is a variable, its value is also stored
in some memory location.

Contd.
• Suppose we assign the address of xyz to a
variable p.
– p is said to point to the variable xyz.
Variable Value Address
xyz 50 1380
p 1380 2545
p = &xyz;
50
1380
xyz
1380
2545
p

Accessing the Address of a Variable
• The address of a variable can be determined
using the ‘&’ operator.
– The operator ‘&’ immediately preceding a variable
returns the address of the variable.
• Example:
p = &xyz;
– The address of xyz (1380) is assigned to p.
• The ‘&’ operator can be used only with a
simple variable or an array element.
&distance
&x[0]
&x[i-2]

Contd.
• Following usages are illegal:
&235
• Pointing at constant.
int arr[20];
:
&arr;
• Pointing at array name.
&(a+b)
• Pointing at expression.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a;
float b, c;
double d;
char ch;
a = 10; b = 2.5; c = 12.36; d = 12345.66; ch = ‘A’;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u n”, a, &a) ;
printf (“%f is stored in location %u n”, b, &b) ;
printf (“%f is stored in location %u n”, c, &c) ;
printf (“%ld is stored in location %u n”, d, &d) ;
printf (“%c is stored in location %u n”, ch, &ch) ;
}

Output:
10 is stored in location 3221224908
2.500000 is stored in location 3221224904
A is stored in location 3221224891
Incidentally variables a,b,c,d and ch are allocated
to contiguous memory locations.
a
b
c
d
ch

Pointer Declarations
• Pointer variables must be declared before we
use them.
• General form:
data_type *pointer_name;
Three things are specified in the above
declaration:
1. The asterisk (*) tells that the variable pointer_name is a
pointer variable.
2. pointer_name needs a memory location.
3. pointer_name points to a variable of type data_type.

Contd.
• Example:
int *count;
float *speed;
• Once a pointer variable has been declared, it
can be made to point to a variable using an
assignment statement like:
int *p, xyz;
:
p = &xyz;
– This is called pointer initialization.

Things to Remember
• Pointer variables must always point to a data
item of the same type.
float x;
int *p;
:  will result in erroneous output
p = &x;
• Assigning an absolute address to a pointer
variable is prohibited.
int *count;
:
count = 1268;

Accessing a Variable Through its Pointer
• Once a pointer has been assigned the address of
a variable, the value of the variable can be
accessed using the indirection operator (*).
int a, b;
int *p;
:
p = &a;
b = *p;
Equivalent to b = a

Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a, b;
int c = 5;
int *p;
a = 4 * (c + 5) ;
p = &c;
b = 4 * (*p + 5) ;
printf (“a=%d b=%d n”, a, b) ;
}
Equivalent

Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y;
int *ptr;
x = 10 ;
ptr = &x ;
y = *ptr ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u n”, x, &x) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u n”, *&x, &x) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u n”, *ptr, ptr) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u n”, y, &*ptr) ;
printf (“%u is stored in location %u n”, ptr, &ptr) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u n”, y, &y) ;
*ptr = 25;
printf (“nNow x = %d n”, x);
}
*&xx
ptr=&x;
&x&*ptr

Output:
Now x = 25
Address of x: 3221224908
Address of y: 3221224904
Address of ptr: 3221224900

Pointer Expressions
• Like other variables, pointer variables can be
used in expressions.
• If p1 and p2 are two pointers, the following
statements are valid:
sum = *p1 + *p2 ;
prod = *p1 * *p2 ;
prod = (*p1) * (*p2) ;
*p1 = *p1 + 2;
x = *p1 / *p2 + 5 ;

Contd.
• What are allowed in C?
– Add an integer to a pointer.
– Subtract an integer from a pointer.
– Subtract one pointer from another (related).
• If p1 and p2 are both pointers to the same array, them
p2–p1 gives the number of elements between p1 and p2.
• What are not allowed?
– Add two pointers.
p1 = p1 + p2 ;
– Multiply / divide a pointer in an expression.
p1 = p2 / 5 ;
p1 = p1 – p2 * 10 ;

Scale Factor
• We have seen that an integer value can be
added to or subtracted from a pointer variable.
int *p1, *p2 ;
int i, j;
:
p1 = p1 + 1 ;
p2 = p1 + j ;
p2++ ;
p2 = p2 – (i + j) ;
• In reality, it is not the integer value which is
added/subtracted, but rather the scale factor
times the value.

Contd.
Data Type Scale Factor
char 1
int 4
float 4
double 8
– If p1 is an integer pointer, then
p1++
will increment the value of p1 by 4.

Example: to find the scale factors
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by int is %d n”, sizeof(int));
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by float is %d n”, sizeof(float));
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by double is %d n”, sizeof(double));
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by char is %d n”, sizeof(char));
}
Output:
Number of bytes occupied by int is 4
Number of bytes occupied by float is 4
Number of bytes occupied by double is 8
Number of bytes occupied by char is 1
Returns no. of bytes required for data type representation

Passing Pointers to a Function
• Pointers are often passed to a function as
arguments.
– Allows data items within the calling program to be
accessed by the function, altered, and then returned
to the calling program in altered form.
– Called call-by-reference (or by address or by
location).
• Normally, arguments are passed to a function
by value.
– The data items are copied to the function.
– Changes are not reflected in the calling program.

Example: passing arguments by value
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a, b;
a = 5 ; b = 20 ;
swap (a, b) ;
printf (“n a = %d, b = %d”, a, b);
}
void swap (int x, int y)
{
int t ;
t = x ;
x = y ;
y = t ;
}
Output
a = 5, b = 20
x and y swap
a and b
do not
swap

Example: passing arguments by reference
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a, b;
a = 5 ; b = 20 ;
swap (&a, &b) ;
printf (“n a = %d, b = %d”, a, b);
}
void swap (int *x, int *y)
{
int t ;
t = *x ;
*x = *y ;
*y = t ;
}
Output
a = 20, b = 5
*x and *y
swap
*(&a) and *(&b)
swap

scanf Revisited
int x, y ;
printf (“%d %d %d”, x, y, x+y) ;
• What about scanf ?
scanf (“%d %d %d”, x, y, x+y) ;
scanf (“%d %d”, &x, &y) ;
NO
YES

Example: Sort 3 integers
• Three-step algorithm:
1. Read in three integers x, y and z
2. Put smallest in x
• Swap x, y if necessary; then swap x, z if necessary.
3. Put second smallest in y
• Swap y, z if necessary.

Contd.
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y, z ;
………..
scanf (“%d %d %d”, &x, &y, &z) ;
if (x > y) swap (&x, &y);
if (x > z) swap (&x, &z);
if (y > z) swap (&y, &z) ;
………..
}

sort3 as a function
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y, z ;
………..
scanf (“%d %d %d”, &x, &y, &z) ;
sort3 (&x, &y, &z) ;
………..
}
void sort3 (int *xp, int *yp, int *zp)
{
if (*xp > *yp) swap (xp, yp);
if (*xp > *zp) swap (xp, zp);
if (*yp > *zp) swap (yp, zp);
}
xp/yp/zp
are
pointers

Contd.
• Why no ‘&’ in swap call?
– Because xp, yp and zp are already pointers that
point to the variables that we want to swap.

Pointers and Arrays
• When an array is declared,
– The compiler allocates a base address and sufficient
amount of storage to contain all the elements of the
array in contiguous memory locations.
– The base address is the location of the first element
(index 0) of the array.
– The compiler also defines the array name as a
constant pointer to the first element.

Example
• Consider the declaration:
int x[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ;
– Suppose that the base address of x is 2500, and each
integer requires 4 bytes.
Element Value Address
x[0] 1 2500
x[1] 2 2504
x[2] 3 2508
x[3] 4 2512
x[4] 5 2516

Contd.
x  &x[0]  2500 ;
– p = x; and p = &x[0]; are equivalent.
– We can access successive values of x by using p++ or
p- - to move from one element to another.
• Relationship between p and x:
p = &x[0] = 2500
p+1 = &x[1] = 2504
p+2 = &x[2] = 2508
p+3 = &x[3] = 2512
p+4 = &x[4] = 2516
*(p+i) gives the
value of x[i]

Example: function to find average
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x[100], k, n ;
scanf (“%d”, &n) ;
for (k=0; k<n; k++)
scanf (“%d”, &x[k]) ;
printf (“nAverage is %f”,
avg (x, n));
}
float avg (int array[ ],int size)
{
int *p, i , sum = 0;
p = array ;
for (i=0; i<size; i++)
sum = sum + *(p+i);
return ((float) sum / size);
}
int *array
p[i]

Structures Revisited
• Recall that a structure can be declared as:
struct stud {
int roll;
char dept_code[25];
float cgpa;
};
struct stud a, b, c;
• And the individual structure elements can be
accessed as:
a.roll , b.roll , c.cgpa , etc.

Arrays of Structures
• We can define an array of structure records as
struct stud class[100] ;
• The structure elements of the individual
records can be accessed as:
class[i].roll
class[20].dept_code
class[k++].cgpa

Example: Sorting by Roll Numbers
#include <stdio.h>
struct stud
{
int roll;
char dept_code[25];
float cgpa;
};
main()
{
struc stud class[100], t;
int j, k, n;
scanf (“%d”, &n);
/* no. of students */
for (k=0; k<n; k++)
scanf (“%d %s %f”, &class[k].roll,
class[k].dept_code, &class[k].cgpa);
for (j=0; j<n-1; j++)
for (k=j+1; k<n; k++)
{
if (class[j].roll > class[k].roll)
{
t = class[j] ;
class[j] = class[k] ;
class[k] = t
}
}
<<<< PRINT THE RECORDS >>>>
}

Pointers and Structures
• You may recall that the name of an array
stands for the address of its zero-th element.
– Also true for the names of arrays of structure
variables.
• Consider the declaration:
struct stud {
int roll;
char dept_code[25];
float cgpa;
} class[100], *ptr ;

– The name class represents the address of the zero-th
element of the structure array.
– ptr is a pointer to data objects of the type struct stud.
• The assignment
ptr = class ;
will assign the address of class[0] to ptr.
• When the pointer ptr is incremented by one
(ptr++) :
– The value of ptr is actually increased by sizeof(stud).
– It is made to point to the next record.

• Once ptr points to a structure variable, the
members can be accessed as:
ptr –> roll ;
ptr –> dept_code ;
ptr –> cgpa ;
– The symbol “–>” is called the arrow operator.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
typedef struct {
float real;
float imag;
} _COMPLEX;
swap_ref(_COMPLEX *a, _COMPLEX *b)
{
_COMPLEX tmp;
tmp=*a;
*a=*b;
*b=tmp;
}
print(_COMPLEX *a)
{
printf("(%f,%f)n",a->real,a->imag);
}
main()
{
_COMPLEX x={10.0,3.0}, y={-20.0,4.0};
print(&x); print(&y);
swap_ref(&x,&y);
print(&x); print(&y);
}
(10.000000,3.000000)
(-20.000000,4.000000)
(-20.000000,4.000000)
(10.000000,3.000000)

A Warning
• When using structure pointers, we should take
care of operator precedence.
– Member operator “.” has higher precedence than “*”.
• ptr –> roll and (*ptr).roll mean the same thing.
• *ptr.roll will lead to error.
– The operator “–>” enjoys the highest priority among
operators.
• ++ptr –> roll will increment roll, not ptr.
• (++ptr) –> roll will do the intended thing.

Structures and Functions
• A structure can be passed as argument to a
function.
• A function can also return a structure.
• The process shall be illustrated with the help of
an example.
– A function to add two complex numbers.

Example: complex number addition
#include <stdio.h>
struct complex {
float re;
float im;
};
main()
{
struct complex a, b, c;
scanf (“%f %f”, &a.re, &a.im);
scanf (“%f %f”, &b.re, &b.im);
c = add (a, b) ;
printf (“n %f %f”, c.re, c.im);
}
struct complex add (x, y)
struct complex x, y;
{
struct complex t;
t.re = x.re + y.re ;
t.im = x.im + y.im ;
return (t) ;
}

Example: Alternative way using pointers
#include <stdio.h>
struct complex {
float re;
float im;
};
main()
{
struct complex a, b, c;
scanf (“%f %f”, &a.re, &a.im);
scanf (“%f %f”, &b.re, &b.im);
add (&a, &b, &c) ;
printf (“n %f %f”, c,re, c.im);
}
void add (x, y, t)
struct complex *x, *y, *t;
{
t->re = x->re + y->re ;
t->im = x->im + y->im ;
}

Dynamic Memory Allocation

Basic Idea
• Many a time we face situations where data is
dynamic in nature.
– Amount of data cannot be predicted beforehand.
– Number of data item keeps changing during
program execution.
• Such situations can be handled more easily and
effectively using dynamic memory management
techniques.

Contd.
• C language requires the number of elements in
an array to be specified at compile time.
– Often leads to wastage or memory space or program
failure.
• Dynamic Memory Allocation
– Memory space required can be specified at the time
of execution.
– C supports allocating and freeing memory
dynamically using library routines.

Memory Allocation Process in C
Local variables
Free memory
Global variables
Instructions
Permanent storage
area
Stack
Heap

Contd.
• The program instructions and the global
variables are stored in a region known as
permanent storage area.
• The local variables are stored in another area
called stack.
• The memory space between these two areas is
available for dynamic allocation during
execution of the program.
– This free region is called the heap.
– The size of the heap keeps changing

Memory Allocation Functions
• malloc
– Allocates requested number of bytes and returns a
pointer to the first byte of the allocated space.
• calloc
– Allocates space for an array of elements, initializes
them to zero and then returns a pointer to the
memory.
• free
Frees previously allocated space.
• realloc
– Modifies the size of previously allocated space.

Allocating a Block of Memory
• A block of memory can be allocated using the
function malloc.
– Reserves a block of memory of specified size and
returns a pointer of type void.
– The return pointer can be assigned to any pointer
type.
• General format:
ptr = (type *) malloc (byte_size) ;

Contd.
• Examples
p = (int *) malloc (100 * sizeof (int)) ;
• A memory space equivalent to “100 times the size of an
int” bytes is reserved.
• The address of the first byte of the allocated memory is
assigned to the pointer p of type int.
p
400 bytes of space

Contd.
cptr = (char *) malloc (20) ;
• Allocates 10 bytes of space for the pointer cptr of type char.
sptr = (struct stud *) malloc (10 *
sizeof (struct stud));

Points to Note
• malloc always allocates a block of contiguous
bytes.
– The allocation can fail if sufficient contiguous
memory space is not available.
– If it fails, malloc returns NULL.

Example
printf("Input heights for %d
students n",N);
for(i=0;i<N;i++)
scanf("%f",&height[i]);
for(i=0;i<N;i++)
sum+=height[i];
avg=sum/(float) N;
printf("Average height= %f n",
avg);
}
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,N;
float *height;
float sum=0,avg;
printf("Input the number of students. n");
scanf("%d",&N);
height=(float *) malloc(N * sizeof(float));
Input the number of students.
5
Input heights for 5 students
23 24 25 26 27
Average height= 25.000000

Releasing the Used Space
• When we no longer need the data stored in a
block of memory, we may release the block for
future use.
• How?
– By using the free function.
• General format:
free (ptr) ;
where ptr is a pointer to a memory block which
has been already created using malloc.

Altering the Size of a Block
• Sometimes we need to alter the size of some
previously allocated memory block.
– More memory needed.
– Memory allocated is larger than necessary.
• How?
– By using the realloc function.
• If the original allocation is done by the statement
ptr = malloc (size) ;
then reallocation of space may be done as
ptr = realloc (ptr, newsize) ;

Contd.
– The new memory block may or may not begin at the
same place as the old one.
• If it does not find space, it will create it in an entirely
different region and move the contents of the old block into
the new block.
– The function guarantees that the old data remains
intact.
– If it is unable to allocate, it returns NULL and frees
the original block.

Pointer to Pointer
• Example:
int **p;
p=(int **) malloc(3 * sizeof(int *));
p
p[2]
p[1]
p[0]
int *
int **
int *
int *

2-D Array Allocation
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int **allocate(int h, int w)
{
int **p;
int i,j;
p=(int **) calloc(h, sizeof (int *) );
for(i=0;i<h;i++)
p[i]=(int *) calloc(w,sizeof (int));
return(p);
}
void read_data(int **p,int h,int w)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<h;i++)
for(j=0;j<w;j++)
scanf ("%d",&p[i][j]);
}
Allocate array
of pointers
Allocate array of
integers for each
row
Elements accessed
like 2-D array elements.

void print_data(int **p,int h,int w)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<h;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<w;j++)
printf("%5d ",p[i][j]);
printf("n");
}
}
2-D Array: Contd.
main()
{
int **p;
int M,N;
printf("Give M and N n");
scanf("%d%d",&M,&N);
p=allocate(M,N);
read_data(p,M,N);
printf("n The array read as n");
print_data(p,M,N);
}
Give M and N
3 3
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
The array read as
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

Linked List :: Basic Concepts
• A list refers to a set of items organized
sequentially.
– An array is an example of a list.
• The array index is used for accessing and manipulation of
array elements.
– Problems with array:
• The array size has to be specified at the beginning.
• Deleting an element or inserting an element may require
shifting of elements.

Contd.
• A completely different way to represent a list:
– Make each item in the list part of a structure.
– The structure also contains a pointer or link to the
structure containing the next item.
– This type of list is called a linked list.
Structure 1
item
Structure 2
item
Structure 3
item

Contd.
• Each structure of the list is called a node, and
consists of two fields:
– One containing the item.
– The other containing the address of the next item in
the list.
• The data items comprising a linked list need
not be contiguous in memory.
– They are ordered by logical links that are stored as
part of the data in the structure itself.
– The link is a pointer to another structure of the
same type.

Contd.
• Such a structure can be represented as:
struct node
{
int item;
struct node *next;
} ;
• Such structures which contain a member field
pointing to the same structure type are called
self-referential structures.
item
node
next

Contd.
• In general, a node may be represented as
follows:
struct node_name
{
type member1;
type member2;
………
struct node_name *next;
};

Illustration
• Consider the structure:
struct stud
{
int roll;
char name[30];
int age;
struct stud *next;
};
• Also assume that the list consists of three nodes
n1, n2 and n3.
struct stud n1, n2, n3;

Contd.
• To create the links between nodes, we can
write:
n1.next = &n2 ;
n2.next = &n3 ;
n3.next = NULL ; /* No more nodes follow */
• Now the list looks like:
n1 n2 n3
roll
name
age
next

Example
#include <stdio.h>
struct stud
{
int roll;
char name[30];
int age;
struct stud *next;
};
main()
{
struct stud n1, n2, n3;
struct stud *p;
scanf (“%d %s %d”, &n1.roll,
n1.name, &n1.age);
n2.name, &n2.age);
n3.name, &n3.age);
n1.next = &n2 ;
n2.next = &n3 ;
n3.next = NULL ;
/* Now traverse the list and print
the elements */
p = n1 ; /* point to 1st
element */
while (p != NULL)
{
printf (“n %d %s %d”,
p->roll, p->name, p->age);
p = p->next;
}
}

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