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Learning Java
B P J
F D
By
John Bach

For information contact :
(alabamamond@gmail.com, memlnc)
http://www.memlnc.com
First Edition: july 2020
UNITY GAME PROGRAMMING
Copyright © 2020 by ALEXANDER ARONOWITZ

"Programming isn't about what you
know; it's about what you can figure out.”
Chris Pine -

CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
J P E
BASIC STRUCTURES OF THE JAVA LANGUAGE
A ' J
C
D
C
B
Methods for working with large numbers
O
Converting numeric types
Cast
S
Union with t rock
Substrings
Editing a string
Checking strings for equalit y
Some methods of the String class
C
Block scope
Conditional statement if - else
Multivariate branching - switch statement
While and do - while loops
cycle for
Break statement
The continue statement
A
Copying arrays

Sorting arrays
Arrays Class Methods
Multidimensional array s
Command line parameters
C -
OBJECTS AND CLASSES
I O O P
OOP terminology
Differences between OOP and Traditional Procedural Programming
C
New operation
An example of using existing classes
C
Method overloading
The this keyword in constructors
A
S
Static fields
Static methods
I
P
Using packages
Adding a class to a package
Specifying the path to packages
Package scope
JAR files
C
INHERITANCE
E
O ( )
I
P
D
P I : T C M
A
P A ( , )
H
I
Interface operator

Implements statement
Constants in interfaces
EXCEPTIONAL SITUATIONS
C E
D M E
How to raise an exceptional situation
Creating Exception Classes
C ( - )
Catching multiple exceptions
Re-raising an exception
Finally section
H
I / O STREAMS
Reading and writing bytes
C
S
D
D F S
T
Writing text to the output stream
Reading text from an input stream
W
LETTER T HURRAY
Introduction
The Java language was created in the early 90's as part of a
software development project for consumer electronic devices. The
original new object-oriented programming language was named Oak
(oak) . With the development of network Internet language Oak was
used to create Internet-applications ( eg, n and this language was
written Oak-browser " WebRunner " ) . In 1995, Sun Microsystems
decided to announce a new product, renaming it Java (the only
reasonable explanation for the name is the love of coffee
programmers) , and WebRunner was renamed HotJava .
The Java language is now increasingly used to create " middleware "
that maintains communication between clients and server resources
. In addition, the Java language has taken over the leadership in

embedded systems , becoming the de facto standard for portable
devices , on-board car computers, and so on .
One of the main advantages of the Java language is independence
from the platform on which programs are executed: the same code
can be run under Windows , Solaris , Linux , Macintosh , etc.
Operating systems . Another advantage is that the syntax of the
Java language is similar to the syntax language s C ++ and C . In
addition, Java is a completely object-oriented language, even more
so than C ++. All entities in the Java language are objects, with the
exception of a few primitive types , such as numbers.
In contrast to C ++ , it is easier to develop error-free programs in
Java . The Java language provides tools to eliminate the very
possibility of creating programs that would hide the most common
errors. To do this, the Java language has done the following :
The possibility of explicit allocation and freeing of memory
has been excluded. Java memory is automatically reclaimed
by garbage collection. The programmer is guaranteed
against errors related to misuse of memory ;
Introduced true arrays and disallowed pointer arithmetic.
Now programmers, in principle, cannot erase data from
memory due to improper use of pointers ;
Eliminated the possibility of confusing the assignment
operator with the equality comparison operator . Now you
can not even compile the expression of the if ( a = 3) { ... }
(this error - the source of most confusion in the languages C
and C ++).
Multiple inheritance is excluded. It has been replaced by
the concept of interface a , borrowed from Objective C. An
interface gives the programmer almost everything a
programmer can get from multiple inheritance, while
avoiding the complexity of managing class hierarchies .
Java Program Execution
A program written in a high-level language (called a source module )
cannot be executed immediately . From the beginning it must be

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compiled, that is , translated into a sequence of machine instructions
- an object module. For boot th unit I of bektny module n uzhno build
the libraries used in the module and enable the cross-references
between the object module sections
The source module written in the language of the Java , could not
avoid these procedures, but here is shown the main feature of the
technology the Java - the program is compiled directly into machine
instructions, but does not command a particular processor, and in
the team's so-called in irtualn second machine s the Java ( JVM,
Java Virtual Machi ne ). The Java Virtual Machine is a collection of
commands along with their execution system. Note that the virtual
machine Java completely stack, and therefore does not require
complex th addressing of and memory cells and a large of quantity
and registers. By A team JVM short, most of which it has a length of
1 byte, so the JVM command called a byte - code ( bytecodes ),
although there are teams of length 2 and 3 bytes. Full description of
the commands and the entire JVM architecture is contained in a
virtual machine specification the Java (the VMS, the Virtual Machine
specifica tion of ).
Another feature of Java is that all standard functions that are called
in a program are connected to it only at run time, and are not
included in the bytecode. In other words, there is dynamic linking (
dynamic binding ) , which significantly reduces the amount of the
compiled program.
Since a program written in Java is translated by the compiler into the
bytecode of the Java Virtual Machine , it is independent of the type
of processor and architecture of the computer being used .
Therefore, bytecode can be performed and be on any computer with
a system that implements the JVM. In this case, neither the type of
processor nor the architecture of the computer is important. T. e
language. The Java - machine-independent. (Obviously, the
implementation of the Java virtual machine is platform dependent.)
Bytecode interpretation and dynamic linking slow down program
execution significantly. It does not matter when the bytecode before
ae tsya on the network - network slower than any interpretation ;
however , other situations require a powerful and fast computer. To

increase the speed of interpretation p azrabotany JIT-compiler ( "
timely " compilers - the Just - with In - Time The compiler ),
memories have interpreted sections of code to machine CPU and
simply performing these areas when re-treatment, for example, in
cycles. Only a specialized processor can provide the highest speed
of bytecode execution . The company of SUN Microsystems
released the microprocessors picoJava , running on the system JVM
command, e nce and Java-processors of other companies. These
processors directly execute bytecode.
And nterpreta tori JVM commands in a specific processor
instructions designed for virtually all computing platforms. More and
more operating systems and database management systems include
JVM implementation in their core. A special JavaOS operating
system has also been created , which is used in electronic devices.
Most browsers have a built-in Java virtual machine to run applets.
The company of SUN Microsystems - the creator of technology Java
- distributes a set of software tools required for a full cycle of
software development on the language ie Java under the name of
the JDK ( Java Development Kit ). There are toolkits from other
companies .
The JDK suite of programs and classes contains:
javac - source to bytecode compiler;
java - the interpreter containing the JVM implementation;
appietviewer - browser-replacement applet viewer
jdt - debugger;
javap - disassembler;
jar - pro gram archiving and compression (using the
format zip -files);
the javadoc - prog Ranma to generate documentation
from comments ;
javah - generating program language header file C ;
javakey - a program for adding an electronic signature;
native2ascii - a program that converts binary files to text;
rmic and rmiregistry programs for working with remote
objects;

serialver - the program that determines the version
number of the class;
libraries and header files of " built-in " methods;
Library classes Java API (Application Programming
Interface) and others .
The first version of the JDK 1.0 was released in 1996 g ode . Starting
with the version the JDK 1.2, which came out in December 1998 g .,
Food technology Java Company and SUN became and nazyvat sya
Java 2 Platform of Standard Edition , abbreviated J 2 SE , a the JDK
was pereimenova n in Java 2 of Standard Edition the SDK (
Software Development Kit ) , abbreviated as J 2 SDK . Also issue
were Java 2 Enterprise Edition the SDK and Java 2 Micro Edition the
SDK . ( However, the very company SUN until now has enjoyed ,
and the old name - the JDK .) With the version the JDK 1.6
packages means development began and nazyvat sya the Java
Platform of Standard Edition Development Kit ( the Java SE ) , the
Java Platform Enterprise Edition the SDK ( the Java EE ) and the
Java Platform Micro Edition SDK ( Java ME ). In addition , SUN
separately distributes a set of JRE ( Java Runtime Environment ) for
working with compiled Java programs .
Basic structures of the Java language
A simple Java program
Consider a simple program that prints a message to the console
window :
public class FirstSample
{
public static void main (String [] args)
{
System.out.println ("Hello, World!");
}
}

The first and main point is that in the Java language , uppercase and
lowercase letters are strictly distinguished. If , for example, Dialed
amb word Main instead of main , the program will not be executed.
The keyword public is called the access modifier ( access modifier );
such modifiers control access to this code from other parts of the
program. The keyword class reminds us that all of the entities in the
language Java is inside a class , t. E. In Neki x container x , in which
the logic of the program concluded, defining the application. Classes
are the building blocks that make up all applications and applets
written in the Java language . All entities in Java programs must be
inside classes.
The class keyword is followed by the class name. The rules for
generating class names are not too strict. The name must start with
a letter, and the rest of it can be any combination of letters and
numbers. The length of the name is practically unlimited. Java
reserved words (for example, public or if ) cannot be used as a class
name .
Classes are usually called nouns starting with an uppercase letter.
The file containing the source code must be named the same as the
public class and have the extension . j ava .
Compiling the program :
java c FirstSample . java
The Java compiler will automatically name this file FirstSample .
class and will save it in the directory containing the source file.
To redirect error messages to a file ( when working on UNIX or
Windows NT / 2000 / XP platforms ) , just use the 2> operator:
javac FirstSample . java 2> errors . txt
For in the Run eniya byte code and using an interpreter Java n
uzhno dial command
java FirstSample
( no extension . class ) .

When to start from the compiled program, use the command java
ClassName , language interpreter Java always starts with the
implementation of the method main of the specified class. Therefore,
for the program to run at all, the class must contain a main method .
In accordance with the specification of the language Java method
main must be declared public ( the public ) and static ( static ) . With
lovo void means that the method does not return any value.
The brackets in the source code of a program are used to mark parts
of the program (usually called blocks). In Java, the code of any
method must begin with an opening curly brace and end with a
closing curly brace ({…}) .
By azhdy operator must end with a semicolon. In particular, the end-
of-line character does not mean that the statement is terminated , so
the statement can span as many lines as needed.
In this example, for a text string output using tsya object System . out
and cause t Xia its method println , in which the text string is passed
as a parameter. Note that period is used to call the method.
In the language of the Java , as well as in the language of s C / C ++
for the designation used strings double quotes.
Java methods can have one or more parameters , or none at all .
Even if the method has no parameters, you must leave empty
parentheses. For example, there is a parameterless version of the
println method that prints an empty string to the screen. Its call looks
like this: System.out.println () .
Comments
Comments in Java , as in most programming languages, are ignored
when compiling a program. Thus, you can add as many comments
to the program as required without fear of increasing its size.
The Java language has three ways to highlight comments in text.
The most common use of two forward slashes is //, whereby the
comment begins immediately after the // characters and continues to
the end of the line. In addition, the delimiters / * and * / can be used .

T retya variety comments mozh is ispolzovat sya for automatic
generation of documentation. These comments begin with / ** and
end with * /. The javadoc utility is used to automatically generate
documentation . exe .
Data types and variables
The Java language is strongly typed. This means that the type of
each variable must be declared.
In the language of Java , there are eight basic types ( primitive types
) data. Four of them are integers, two - to the actual floating- point,
one is a character type char , used to represent characters in the
format of the Unicode , and the latter - a boolean type boolean - is
used for logical values.
There is no concept of unsigned numbers in Java .
Table 1 . Data types
A type Size in bytes Change interval
int 4 o t - 2147 483648 up to 2147483647
short 2 from -32768 up to 32767
l ong 8
o t -
9223372036854775808L
up to
922337203685477580
7 L
byte 1 o t - 12 8 up to 1 27
float 4 from - 3.4 02823 47 Е
38 F
up to 3.4 02823 47 E +
38 F
double 8 from - 1.7976931348623 1
57 E + 308
D o 1.79769313486231
57 E + 308
char 2 from 0 ( ' u0000 ' )
up to 65535 ( ' uFFFF
' )
Long integers have an L suffix ( for example, 4000000000L).
Hexadecimal numbers are prefixed with 0 x ( for example, 0 xCAFE
or 0 xcafe ). Octal numbers are prefixed with 0. For example, 010 is
8 10 .
Float numbers have an F suffix, for example 3.402F. Floating point
numbers having no suffix F ( e.g., 3.402), are always treated as the

number of type double ( with double precision ) . You can (but not
necessarily) use the D suffix to represent them, for example 3.402D.
All calculations performed on floating point numbers follow the IEEE
754 standard. In particular, the Java language has three special
floating point numbers:
positive infinity (constant Double . POSITIVE _ INFINITY )
;
negative infinity (constant Double . NEGATIVE _
INFINITY ) ;
NaN (not a number) ( constant Double. NaN ) .
They are used to indicate overflow and error. For example, dividing a
positive number by 0 equals positive infinity. Evaluating 0/0 or taking
the square root of a negative number is NaN.
For constants of type char , single quotes are used. For example, ' H
' is a character. It differs from "H" , which is a single character string.
In Java to represent the characters are encoded the Unicode , so the
value of the type as char coded 2-byte of vym code. Unicode is the
union of dozens of character encodings ; it includes Latin, Greek,
Arabic alphabets, Cyrillic and many other character sets.
Unicode character codes are usually expressed as hexadecimal
values from ' u0000' to ' uFFFF' . The u prefix means that the
character is in Unicode format , followed by four hexadecimal digits
that identify the character. For example, ' u2122 ' is a trademark
(™) symbol .
With quantities of type char mozh but handled as integers . This
makes it possible to add two characters together, or to increment the
value of a character variable :
The Java language has a simple boolean type used to store boolean
values. Variables of this type can take only two values - true (true)
and false (false). Values of type boolean return as a result of all
comparison operators .
Note that the variable name must also begin with a letter and be a
combination of letters and numbers. The terms "letters" and
"numbers" in Java have a broader meaning than in most other
programming languages. Letters are considered Sim oxen ' A' - ' the

Z', 'a' - ' the z ', '_' and any symbol encoding the Unicode . Similarly,
both ordinary decimal digits '0' - ' 9 ' and any Unicode characters
used to denote a digit in any language are considered digits. The
use of other characters in identifiers is prohibited. All characters in
the variable name are important, and the case of the keyboard also
matters. Variable name length is not limited. You cannot use
reserved words as variable names.
In the language of Java size ad is, and determining the e variables
do not differ.
After declaring a variable, you must explicitly initialize it using the
assignment operator. For example :
int vacationDays ; // This is a declaration
vacationDays = 12; // This is an assignment operator
int index = 0 xffffffff ; // -1
long number = 25 L ;
float result = 2.5 F ;
double pi = 3.14159;
char c1 = 0x f132;
char c2 = 'a';
char c3 = ' n';
char c4 = ' u2122 ' ;
boolean done = false ;
The basic form of a variable declaration is as follows:
type identifier [= value] [, identifier [= value 2 ...];
Type - is either one of the built-in types so . e . byte , short , int , long
, char , float , double , boolean , or the name of a class or interface.
Constants
The Java language uses the final keyword to denote constants , for
example:
public class Constants
{
{
final double CM_PER_INCH = 2.54 ;

double paperWidth = 8.5;
double PaperHeight = 11;
System . out . the println ( " The size of the page in
inches "
+ paperWidth * CM_PER_INCH + " on "
+ paper H eight * CM _ PER _ INCH );
}
}
The final keyword means that you can assign a value to a given
variable only once. It is not necessary to use only uppercase letters
in constant names .
In the Java language , you often need constants that are available to
multiple methods within the same class. They are usually called
class constants . Class constants are declared using the static final
keywords . Here's an example using a class constant :
public class Constants 2
{
public static final double CM_PER_INCH = 2.54;
{
...
}
}
Note the fact that the class constant is defined outside the main
method . Thus, it can be used in other methods of the same class.
Moreover, if (as in this example) a constant is declared public ,
methods from other classes can also access it. In our example, this
can be done using the expression Constants 2. CM _ PER _ INCH .
Big numbers
If the precision of the built-in integer and floating point types is not
sufficient , you can refer to the two classes in the Java package .
math called Big I nteger and BigDecimal . These classes are

designed to manipulate numbers consisting of an arbitrary number of
digits. The Big I nteger and BigDecimal classes implement arbitrary
precision arithmetic on integers and real numbers, respectively.
To convert an ordinary number to “ large ”, use the method
valueOf . Big I nteger a = Big I nteger.value O f (100);
The usual mathematical operators “ + ” and “ * ” cannot be applied to
large numbers . Instead, you need to use the add and multiply
methods from the classes to work with large numbers :
Big I nteger with = a . add ( b ); // c = a + b
BigI nteger d = c .multiply (b.add (BigInteger.valueOf (2)));
// d = c * ( b + 2)
Methods for working with large numbers
java.math.Big I nteger 1.1
Big I nteger add (Big I nteger other)
Big I nteger subtract (Big I nteger othe r)
Big I nteger multiply (Big I nteger other)
Big I nteger divide (Big I nteger other)
Big I nteger mod (Big I nteger other)
These functions return the sum, difference, product, quotient, and remainder of
a given large number by the value of other .
int compa reTo (Big I nteg e r other)
Returns 0 if the given large number is equal to the value of other, a negative
number if the given large number is less than the value of other, and positive
otherwise.
static Big I nteger valueOf (long x)
Returns a large number equal to the value of x.
java.mathBigDecimal 1.1
BigDecimal add (BigDecimal other)
BigDecimal subtract (BigDecimal other)
BigDecimal multiply (BigDecimal other)
BigDecimal divide (BigDecimal other, int roundingMod e)
Returns the sum, difference, product, and quotient of a large decimal number
by the value of other . To calculate the quotient, you need to support the
rounding mode. BigDecimal ROUND_HALF_UP means normal rounding (that
is , downward if the last digit is less than 5, and upward if it is greater than 5).

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P. 302.—“Decii,” deˈ
ci-i. “Drusus,” druˈ
sus. “Torquatus,” tor-quaˈ
tus.
Famous Roman leaders in the early days of the Republic.
“Æacides,” æ-acˈ
i-des. A name given to the descendants of
Æacus, among whom were Peleus, Achilles and Pyrrhus.
P. 303.—“Feretrian,” fer-reˈ
tri-an. A name given sometimes to
Jove. It is probably derived from the verb to strike, as persons taking
an oath called on Jove to strike them if they swore falsely.

NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN
“THE CHAUTAUQUAN.”
FRENCH HISTORY.
P. 377, c. 1.—“Voltaire,” vol-têrˈ
. (1694-1778.) French author.
“Rousseau,” Jean Jacques, rooˌ
sōˈ
. (1712-1778.) French
philosopher and writer.
“Montesquieu,” mŏnˈ
tĕs-kūˌ
. (1689-1755.) French jurist and
philosopher.
“D’Alembert,” däˈ
lŏnˌ
bêrˌ
. (1717-1783.) French mathematician.
P. 377, c. 2.—“Maria Theresa,” ma-rīˈ
a te-reeˈ
sä. (1717-1780.)
Empress of Germany and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia.
“Turgot,” türˌ
goˈ
. (1727-1781.) At the time of his appointment to
the control of finance, Turgot had won a fine reputation by his
papers on political economy, tolerance in governing, and like
subjects. He at once undertook to carry out his views, abolishing all
taxes save those on land, doing away with compulsory labor for the
state, the privileges of trading corporations and the like; this made
him very unpopular among the favored classes, and Louis was forced
to dismiss him.
“Necker,” nĕkˈ
er. (1732-1804.) Necker’s policy was to restore order
and confidence. He restrained the prodigality of the court, cut down
the expenses of the government, regulated taxes, and laid the
foundation of the Bank of France. After his final withdrawal from
France, Necker lived in Geneva, where he wrote several essays. It is

said that on the accession of Bonaparte to power he attempted to
obtain the position of minister of finance, but was rejected.
“Ushant,” ushˈ
ant. The largest of the Ouessant Isles, off the coast
of the department of Finisterre in France.
“D’Estaings,” dĕsˌ
tănˈ
. (1729-1794.) He was brought up to military
service, was twice taken prisoner by the English but released, and in
1763 was appointed lieutenant-general of the navy. D’Estaings was
sent to the United States in 1778, where he planned attacks on New
York and Newport, but was unsuccessful in both. After the campaign
in the West Indies he coöperated with the Americans in an attack
upon Savannah, but was wounded.
“Granada,” “St. Lucia,” “St. Vincent.” Three islands of the
Windward group of the West Indies.
“Langara,” läˈ
gä-rä. (1730-1800.)
“De Guichen,” deh-gēˈ
shonˌ
. (1712-1790.) A French naval officer,
made lieutenant-general in 1779. The next year after the victory
here given he was defeated by the English.
“De Grasse,” deh gräs. (1723-1788.) Count de Grasse served in
the American war, and in 1781 aided Washington and Lafayette in
the capture of Cornwallis.
“Hood.” (1724-1816.) He entered the navy at sixteen. In 1780 he
was made second in command in the West Indies. The year after his
defeat he defeated De Grasse and was made a baron. In 1793 he
commanded the English in the Mediterranean against the French,
and in 1796 was made a viscount.
“Tobago,” to-bāˈ
go. An island of the Windward group of the West
Indies.
P. 378, c. 1.—“Ville de Paris.” The city of Paris.

“Crillon,” kreˈ
yonˌ
. (1718-1796.) A lieutenant-general in the Seven
Years’ War, and afterward captain-general of Spain.
“Senegal,” senˈ
e-gawlˌ
. A river of western Africa.
“Calonne,” kăˌ
lonˈ
. (1734-1802.) Calonne had been a law student
and a courtier, when appointed to succeed Necker. After his dismissal
he went to London, where he wrote many able political and financial
tracts.
“Brienne,” breˌ
ënˈ
. (1727-1794.) Brienne was an archbishop and a
member of the academy when he succeeded Calonne.
P. 378, c. 2.—“En Masse.” In a body.
“Desmoulins,” dāˌ
mooˌ
lănˈ
. (1762-1794.) A schoolmate of
Robespierre, and a partisan of the Revolution. He was called the
“Attorney-General of the lamp post,” for his share in street mobs.
“Launay,” lōˈ
na. He was massacred immediately after the capture
of the place.
“Condé,” kŏnˈ
dāˌ(1736-1818); “Polignac,” poˈ
lēnˌ
yäkˌ
; “Noailles,” no
ˈ
äl; “Seignioral,” seenˈ
yur-al. Lordly, kingly; belonging to a seignior.
P. 379, c. 1.—“Sièyes,” se-yāsˈ
. (1748-1836.) At the beginning of
the Revolution Sièyes wrote a pamphlet which placed him at the
head of the publicists. He was a member of the Assembly, of the
Convention, and in 1799 of the Directory. When the new régime
began he was one of the three consuls, but soon after lost his
influence, which he never regained.
“Robespierre,” roˈ
bes-peer. (1758-1794.) He was educated for the
law, and practicing, when in 1789 he was sent to the States-General.
His radical democratic views gained him a prominent place. He
afterward was a member of the Assembly, and in 1792 was elected
to the Convention. He became the leader of one party there, and
was instrumental in bringing on the Reign of Terror, of which he was

the acknowledged head. His cruelty at last turned the people against
him, and he was guillotined in 1794.
“Mirabeau,” mĭrˈ
a-bō. (1749-1791.) He was descended from a
family of high rank, but was passionate and uncontrolled. Until 1788
his life was spent in all sorts of employments and intrigues. At that
time he made up his mind to enter French politics, and succeeded in
getting himself elected to the States-General of 1789. In 1791 he
was elected president of the National Assembly, but died soon after,
a victim to excess.
“Œil-de-Bœuf,” eel-deh-bŭf.
P. 379, c. 2.—“Chalons,” shäˌ
lōnˈ
; “Menehould,” māˌ
nāˈ
hō.
“Bouillé,” booˈ
yā. (1739-1800.)
“Varennes,” väˈ
renˌ
.
“Rochambeau,” roˈ
shŏnˌ
bō. (1725-1807.) A French marshal. In
early life he fought in several minor campaigns. In 1780 he was sent
to the United States with 6,000 men, and the next year fought at
Yorktown.
“Dumouriez,” düˌ
mooˈ
re-ā. (1739-1823.) After the battle of
Jemappes, the convention being jealous of Dumouriez’s loyalty to
the Bourbons, summoned him to their bar. He refused to go, and
was obliged to spend the rest of his life in exile.
“Verdun,” vĕrˈ
dun; “Longwy,” lōngˌ
veˈ
.
“Custine,” küsˌ
tēnˈ
. (1740-1793.)
“Jemappes,” zhem-map.
P. 380, c. 1.—“Fédérés,” fāˈ
dāˌ
rāˌ
; “Abbaye,” ă-bāˈ
; “Conciergerie,”
konˌ
cerˈ
jaˌ
reˌ
; “Carmes,” kärm; “Bicêtre,” beˈ
cātrˌ
. The names of famous
French prisons.
“Lamballe,” lŏnˌ
bälˈ
. (1749-1792.)

“Sombreuil,” sŏnˌ
brulˈ
. The sister of an officer prominent in support
of the Royalists.
“Cazotte,” käˈ
zotˌ
. Jacques Cazotte, her father, was a French poet.
P. 380, c. 2.—“Égalité,” ā-găˈ
le-tā.
“Vergniaud,” verˌ
yne-ōˈ
. (1759-1793.)
P. 381, c. 1.—“Marat,” mäˈ
rä. (1744-1793.) Before the Revolution
Marat had practiced medicine. In 1789 he gained great popularity
among the Revolutionists by his journal, The Friend of the People.
After his election in 1792 to the Convention and the formation of the
triumvirate with Danton and Robespierre, he wielded great power by
his decisive opinions.
“Danton,” dänˌ
tonˈ
. (1759-1794.) He was a lawyer by profession. At
the beginning of the Revolution he became a popular leader and
orator. When the supreme power fell into the hands of the
triumvirate Danton was elected minister of justice, thus having chief
control of the city. Afterward he was elected to the Convention,
where he became a prominent leader, but excited the jealousy of
Robespierre. The latter triumphed in the contest for the first rank,
and Danton was guillotined. Lamartine says of him: “Nothing was
wanting to make Danton a great man, except virtue.”
P. 381, c. 2.—“Corday,” korˌ
daˈ
. (1768-1793.)
P. 382, c. 1.—“Aboukir,” ä-boo-keerˈ
.
“Tuileries,” tü-eel-rē. A royal palace of Paris.
“D’Enghien,” dŏnˌ
-gănˈ
. (1772-1804.) “Eylau,” īˈ
lou; “Friedland,” frēd
ˈ
land.
COMMERCIAL LAW.
P. 384, c. 1.—“Misfeasance,” mis-fēˈ
zans. A wrong act.

P. 384, c. 2. “In transitu.” On the passage.
READINGS IN ART.
P. 384, c. 2.—“Cimabue,” che-mä-booˈ
ā. (1240?-1302?) Called “the
father of modern painting.”
P. 385, c. 1.—“Navicella,” năv-i-celˈ
la. The name of the mosaic,
meaning the little ship.
“Assisi,” as-seeˈ
see. A picturesque town of central Italy, chiefly
noted as the birthplace of St. Francis, who founded the Franciscan
order of monks.
“Podestà,” po-des-tāˈ
. In 1207 the chief executive power of
Florence was put into the hands of a single officer called the
podesta; hence the reference is to the chief magistrate’s palace.
“Chiaro-scuro,” chi-äˌ
ro-ŏs-cuˈ
ro. The effective distribution of lights
and shades in a picture.
“Guido di Pietro,” gweeˈ
do de pe-aˈ
trō.
“Fiesole,” fyesˈ
o-lā. A town of Italy, near Florence.
“Vicchio,” vekˈ
kee-o; “Mugello,” mu-gelˈ
lō.
P. 385, c. 2.—“Orvieto,” or-ve-āˈ
to. A town of central Italy, not far
from Perugia.
“Luca Signorelli,” luˈ
ca sēn-yo-relˈ
lee. (1439-1521.) An Italian
painter, a nephew of Vasari. His frescoes are his most noteworthy
pieces.
“Scudi,” skōoˈ
dee. The plural of scudo, an Italian coin used in Italy
and Sicily, and worth about 96 cents.
“Santa Maria delle Grazie,” sänˈ
tä mä-reeˈ
ä delˈ
lā grätˈ
se-ā.

“Marco d’Oggione,” marˈ
co dōd-goˈ
nā. (1470-1530.) A pupil of
Leonardo. He made two copies of “The Last Supper”—his most
important works.
P. 386, c. 1.—“Cloux,” clou; “Amboise,” almost ŏnbˈ
wīzˌ
. A town on
the Loire, in western central France.
“Vasari,” vä-säˈ
ree. (1512-1574.) A pupil of Michaelangelo, and a
successful painter. His fame rests on his “Lives of the most excellent
Painters, Architects and Sculptors,” one of the most valuable books
ever written on the subject.
“Trattato,” etc. Treatise on painting.
“Castel Caprese.” käs-telˈ
kä-presˈ
ā; “Arezzo,” ä-retˈ
so.
“Ghirlandaio,” gĕr-län-däˈ
yo. (1451-1495.) A painter famous for his
invention. His chief works, “The Massacre of the Infants” and “The
Death of St. Francis” are still preserved in the Sistine chapel.
“Fuseli,” fūˈ
seh-le. (1742-1825.) A celebrated historical painter.
“Monochrome,” mŏnˈ
o-chrōme. A painting with a single color.
P. 386, c. 2.—“Sandro Botticelli,” bot-te-chelˈ
lee. (1440-1515.) An
eminent Italian painter. His frescoes in the chapel of the Vatican are
his most powerful works.
“Cosimo Rosselli,” ro-selˈ
lee. (1439-1506.)
“Perugino,” pā-roo-jeeˈ
nō. (1446-1524.) The master of Raphael.
He received his name, “The Perugian,” from the work which he did
at Perugia, where there still exist some of his best frescoes.
“Raffaello Sanzio,” rä-fä-ĕˈ
lō sänˈ
ze-o; “Pinturicchio,” pēn-too-rēk
ˈ
ke-o. (1454-1513.)
P. 387, c. 1.—“Francia,” fränˈ
chä. (1450-1533?) A celebrated Italian
painter.

“Fra Bartholommeo,” barˈ
to-lo-māˌ
ō.
For help in pronouncing the Italian names which are so numerous
in this paper, we give a set of simple rules for Italian vowels and
consonants.
A like a in father.
E like e in met, more prolonged and open at the close of a
syllable.
I like ee in feet.
O. Pronounce roll and stop on the middle of the word, and it is
precisely the Italian o.
U like oo in root.
C or g followed by a, o or u, as in English, but followed by e or i,
c has the sound of ch as in cherry, and g is like g in gem.
Gn is like ni in poniard.
Gl as in English, except before i, when it has the sound of ll in
brilliant.
S at the beginning of a word has the hissing sound, as between
two vowels, or followed by b, d, r or v, is pronounced like z.
Sc, followed by e or i, like sh.
Z like dz in words which have z in the English word; like tz when
preceded by l or r, or followed by two vowels, and in nouns ending
in zzo.
Single consonants are generally soft; double consonants are
pronounced in one sound, but stronger and more marked than when
single.

SELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE.
P. 393, c. 2.—“En bloc.” In a lump.
“Genre.” A style; a peculiar kind or species.
“Du Maurier,” dü mōˈ
re-a. An English caricaturist who for over
twenty years has been connected with Punch.

TALK ABOUT BOOKS.
Most indefinite ideas exist among even very well informed people
concerning the Soudan and its tribes. What is the Soudan? Who
people it? What does England want of it? Such questions are
worrying many heads, and there has been a general search for
information. A very timely book to those interested, is “The Wild
Tribes of the Soudan.”[B] The author, so late as December, 1881,
started on a trip of exploration and sport through the Basé country—
a small part, it is true, of the Soudan, but the people, customs and
country serve as reliable examples. The experiences of this company
of sportsmen with the people, their adventures and dangers, furnish
us with much useful information about a people in whom we are all
just now interested. The book is furnished with excellent maps.
The erudition embraced in Dr. Winchell’s digest[C] of Cosmical
Science exhausts the contributions of the French, German and
English languages, and is simply enormous. As the author con amore
has made this subject the study of an average lifetime, his personal
contributions of original thought constitute a large part of the book.
It is written in a calm, judicial spirit and incisive style, and increases
in strength and interest to the close. The universe of matter is the
field of observation, and starting with the principles which are
worked out before our eyes on this planet, the mechanism of the
solar system is subjected to analysis in regard to the order of its
structure and final destiny. He then passes into the stellar universe,
and finds evidence that the same kinds of substances are there,
subject to the same laws, and tending to the same results. The
speculative reasoning of the volume of course covers much space,
but the trustworthy information obtained is all that could be
expected; in fact, all that is known to science. We know of no other
book which gives to the mind so clear a view of the incomparable

vastness of the universe, and the rationale of its existing as does
this. The conclusion reached is, that the surface of our moon is
made up mostly of the craters, cinders, and lava-beds of spent
volcanoes. All the other planets, the sun included, are tending in the
same direction and destiny. In the stellar world other systems of sun
and planets have reached this goal of desolation; others are on the
way, and new systems, originating in nebulæ, are taking on form
and order. When a cycle is once completed by a system its career is
ended forever and ever. On the whole, this is one of the most
instructive and fascinating volumes we have read for a long time.
“Oregon”[D] is one of a series of volumes entitled “American
Commonwealths,” edited by H. E. Scudder. The monograph was
furnished by W. Barrows, D.D., and is both well written and carefully
edited. The subject of the narrative and the sources from which the
materials were drawn may have somewhat affected the style of the
writing, which is exuberant and picturesque. Suppository details are
suggested with a freedom that shows a desire to make the account
impressive without lessening its historical value. The most valuable
part is given to the question of national right, and the long struggle
of England and America for possession. Americans who found fault
with the Ashburton-Webster treaty as conceding too much, while
Oregon was left out, should read this book.
“Arius The Libyan”[E] is a historical romance, and one of the very
best of the class. It deals vigorously with early ecclesiastical matters,
and draws, with consummate skill, some well known prominent
characters of the third and fourth centuries. Its literary merits are of
a high order, and whether we do or do not accept the doctrines as
true, and the estimates of the characters introduced as just, all will
confess the story is well planned, and told with great power.
Constantine is sketched as a very able, far-seeing, but intensely
selfish and unscrupulous politician, a man evilly ambitious, and the
lust of power his ruling passion. He and the bishops he influenced
completely secularized the Church, left the common primitive
Christianity, and established a politico-ecclesiastical institution

intended to conserve the interests of the empire. The book is
thoroughly self-consistent, and all the characters, good and bad, are
well sustained.
There are few women in the country who do not know something
of Mary A. Livermore, who directly or indirectly have not been
influenced by her earnest pleas for strong, self-reliant, womanly
living among women. When she began her lectures several years
ago, she was ahead of her time, but public sentiment has made
rapid strides, and is fast gaining pace with her. The need of physical
culture, of higher education, of practical training for women is
acknowledged on every side, and has never been more clearly
shown than by Mrs. Livermore in her lectures. The hope that these
lectures might have a wider influence by publication has led to their
being put into book form, under the title of “What Shall we Do With
our Daughters?”[F]
“Mexico and the Mexicans”[G] is a very readable book; not
specially fascinating in style, but of substantial value. It is modest in
pretentions, as real worth usually is. Promising only a narrative of
personal observations and experiences, the writer has managed to
collect from reliable sources much information concerning the
country, its people and institutions, that will be of interest to
American freemen and philanthropists. We like it as a clever, matter-
of-fact book, whose author, fitted for the work assumed, does not
attempt fine writing, or the role of delineator. Not much attention is
given to the religious phase of society. In a single paragraph of ten
lines, respectful mention is made of the fact that the American Board
has a station at Monterey, and that the Baptists have some zealous
missionaries in the same region. In the capital, Roman Catholic
institutions alone seemed worthy of notice. A longer stay and closer
observation would have discovered Protestantism established there
also.
“Great Events of History”[H] is a well written, readable book from
the pen of W. F. Collier, LL.D. It presents important facts succinctly,
yet with sufficient fullness, and so clearly that the memory can easily

retain them. It presents the great events from the commencement
of the Christian era to the present century in eight periods, without
confusion, and so clearly as to give assured possession of the facts,
while much is done to lessen the labor of the learner, and sweeten
the toil that to many is irksome. The geographical appendix will
prove very useful, as the kindred studies of history and geography
are pursued with best advantage when taken in connection.
[B] The Wild Tribes of the Soudan. An account of Travel and
Sport, chiefly in the Basé country. By F. L. James, M.A., F.R.G.S.
New York: Dodd, Mead & Co.
[C] World-Life, or Comparative Geology. By Alexander Winchell,
LL.D., of the University of Michigan. S. C. Gregg & Co., Chicago.
1883.
[D] Oregon, the Struggle for Possession. By William Barrows.
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1884.
[E] Arius, The Libyan. An Idyl of the Primitive Church. New
York: D. Appleton & Co. 1884.
[F] What Shall we Do with our Daughters? Superfluous
Women, and other lectures. By Mary A. Livermore. Boston: Lee &
Shepard. 1883.
[G] Mexico and the Mexicans; or Notes of Travel in the Winter
and Spring of 1883. By Howard Conkling. With illustrations. New
York: Taintor Brothers, Merrell & Co. 1883.
[H] Great Events of History. By W. W. Collier, LL.D. New York:
Nelson & Sons.

This powder never varies. A marvel of purity, strength
and wholesomeness. More economical than the ordinary
kinds, and can not be sold in competition with the
multitude of low test, short weight, alum or phosphate
powders. Sold only in cans. Royal Baking Powder Co., 106
Wall Street, New York.
Transcriber’s Notes:
Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Accents
corrected and made consistent.
Page 387, “Bartolommeo” changed to
“Bartholommeo” (Fra Bartholommeo had great
influence)
Page 399, “earning” changed to “learning” (pupils
are learning)
Page 414, “somthing” changed to “something”
(combined with something else)

, “Sybil” changed to “Sibyl” (and Sibyl
can do perfectly well)
Page 424, “In” changed to “It” (It contains no
less than five)
Page 427, “wel” changed to “well” (a well-
prepared plan)
Page 430, “governnent” changed to
“government” (the prices of government bonds)
Page 431, “socialogical” changed to “sociological”
(the long list of sociological essays)
Page 432, “hired” changed to “had” (had the rival
candidate murdered)
Page 435, “prisoners” changed to “prisons” (The
names of famous French prisons)
Page 435, “poinard” changed to “poniard” (like ni
in poniard)
Page 436, “of” added (The subject of the
narrative)

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