![winding forms, mixt with foliage, twisting about them, are made use of
in all ornaments; a kind of composition calculated merely to please the
eye. Divest these of their serpentine twinings, and they immediately
lose all grace, and return to the poor gothic taste they were in an
hundred years ago [Fig. 63 B p. II].
Fig. [64 B p. II] is meant to represent the manner, in which most of the
muscles, (those of the limbs in particular) are twisted round the bones,
and conform themselves to their length and shape; but with no
anatomical exactness. As to the running of their fibres, some
anatomists have compared them to skains of thread, loose in the
middle, and tight at each end, which, when they are thus consider'd as
twisted contrary ways round the bone, gives the strongest idea
possible of a composition of serpentine-lines.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-13-320.jpg)
![Of these fine winding forms then are the muscles and bones
composed, and which, by their varied situations with each other,
become more intricately pleasing, and form a continued waving of
winding forms from one into the other, as may be best seen by
examining a good anatomical figure, part of which you have here
represented, in the muscular leg and thigh, fig. [65 p. I]: which shews
the serpentine forms and varied situations of the muscles, as they
appear when the skin is taken off. It was drawn from a plaster of paris
figure cast off nature, the original of which was prepared for the mould
by Cowper, the famous anatomist. In this last figure, as the skin is
taken off the parts are too distinctly traced by the eye, for that intricate
delicacy which is necessary to the utmost beauty; yet the winding
figures of the muscles, with the variety of their situations, must always](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-14-320.jpg)
![be allow'd elegant forms: however, they lose in the imagination some
of the beauty, which they really have, by the idea of their being flayed;
nevertheless, by what has already been shewn both of them and the
bones, the human frame hath more of its parts composed of
serpentine-lines than any other object in nature; which is a proof both
of its superior beauty to all others, and, at the same time, that its
beauty proceeds from those lines: for although they may be required
sometimes to be bulging in their twists, as in the thick swelling muscles
of the Hercules, yet elegance and greatness of taste is still preserved;
but when these lines lose so much of their twists as to become almost
straight, all elegance of taste vanishes.
Thus fig. [66 p. I], was also taken from nature, and drawn in the same
position, but treated in a more dry, stiff, and what the painters call,
sticky manner, than the nature of flesh is ever capable of appearing in,
unless when its moisture is dryed away: it must be allowed, that the
parts of this figure are of as right dimensions, and as truly situated, as
in the former; it wants only the true twist of the lines to give it taste.
To prove this further, and to put the mean effect of these plain or
unvaried lines in a stronger light, see fig. [67 p. I], where, by the
uniform, unvaried shapes and situation of the muscles, without so
much as a waving-line in them, it becomes so wooden a form, that he
that can fashion the leg of a joint-stool may carve this figure as well as
the best sculptor. In the same manner, divest one of the best antique
statues of all its serpentine winding parts, and it becomes from an
exquisite piece of art, a figure of such ordinary lines and unvaried
contents, that a common stone-mason or carpenter, with the help of
his rule, calipers, and compasses, might carve out an exact imitation of
it: and were it not for these lines a turner, in his lathe, might turn a
much finer neck than that of the grecian Venus, as according to the
common notion of a beautiful neck, it would be more truly round. For
the same reason, legs much swoln with disease, are as easy to imitate
as a post, having lost their drawing, as the painters call it; that is,
having their serpentine-lines all effaced, by the skin's being equally
puffed up, as figure [68].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-15-320.jpg)
![And if the reader will follow in his imagination the most exquisite turns of the chisel in the
hands of a master, when he is putting the finishing touches to a statue; he will soon be led
to understand what it is the real judges expect from the hand of such a master, which the
Italians call, the little more, Il poco piu, and which in reality distinguishes the original
master-pieces at Rome from even the best copies of them.
An example or two will sufficiently explain what is here meant; for as these exquisite turns
are to be found, in some degree of beauty or other, all over the whole surface of the body
and limbs: we may by taking any one part of a fine figure (though so small a one that only a
few muscles are express'd in it) explain the manner in which so much beauty and grace has
been given to them, as to convince a skilful artist, almost at sight, that it must have been
the work of a master.
I have chosen, for this purpose, a small piece of the body of a statue, fig. [76 T p. II],
representing part of the left side under the arm, together with a little of the breast,
(including a very particular muscle, which, from the likeness its edges bear to the teeth of a
saw, is, if consider'd by itself, void of beauty) as most proper to the point in hand, because
this its regular shape more peculiarly requires the skill of the artist to give it a little more
variety than it generally has, even in nature.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-18-320.jpg)
![First, then, I will give you a representation of this part of the body, from an anatomical
figure [Fig. 77 T p. II], to show what a sameness there is in the shapes of all the teeth-like
insertions of this muscle; and how regularly the fibres, which compose it, follow the almost
parallel out-lines of the ribs they partly cover.
From what has been said before of the use of the natural covering of the skin, &c. the next
figure [78 T p. II] will easily be understood to mean so tame a representation of the same
part of the body, that tho' the hard and stiff appearance of the edges of this muscle is taken
off by that covering, yet enough of its regularity and sameness remains to render it
disagreeable.
Now as regularity and sameness, according to our doctrine, is want of elegance and true
taste, we shall endeavour in the next place to show how this very part (in which the muscles
take so very regular a form) may be brought to have as much variety as any other part of
the body whatever. In order to this, though some alteration must be made in almost every
part of it, yet it should be so inconsiderable in each, that no remarkable change may appear
in the shape and situation of any.
Thus, let the parts mark'd 1, 2, 3, 4, (which appear so exactly similar in shape, and parallel
in situation in the muscular figure 77) and not much mended in fig. 78, be first varied in](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-19-320.jpg)
![their sizes, but not gradually from the uppermost to the lowest, as in fig. [79 T p. II], nor
alternately one long and one short, as in fig. [80 T p. II], for in either of these cases there
would still remain too great a formality. We should therefore endeavour, in the next place, to
vary them every way in our power, without losing entirely the true idea of the parts
themselves. Suppose them then to have changed their situations a little, and slip'd beside
each other irregularly, (some how as is represented in fig. [81 T p. II], merely with regard to
their situation) and the external appearance of the whole piece of the body, now under our
consideration, will assume the more varied and pleasing form, represented in fig. 76, easily
to be discern'd by comparing the three figures, 76, 77, 78, one with another; and it will as
easily be seen, that were lines to be drawn, or wires to be bent, over these muscles, from
one to the other, and so on to the adjoining parts; they would have a continued waving flow,
let them pass in any direction whatever.
The unskilful, in drawing these parts after the life, as their regularities are much more easily
seen and copied than their fine variations, seldom fail of making them more regular and
poor than they really appear even in a consumptive person.
The difference will appear evident by comparing fig. 78, purposely drawn in this tasteless
manner, with fig. 76. But will be more perfectly understood by examining this part in the
Torso of Michael Angelo [Fig. 54 p. I], whence this figure was taken.
Note, there are casts of a small copy of that famous trunk of a body to be had at almost
every plaster-figure makers, wherein what has been here described may be sufficiently seen,
not only in the part which figure 76 was taken from, but all over that curious piece of
antiquity.
I must here again press my reader to a particular attention to the windings of these
superficial lines, even in their passing over every joint, what alterations soever may be made
in the surface of the skin by the various bendings of the limbs: and tho' the space allow'd for
it, just in the joints, be ever so small, and consequently the lines ever so short, the
application of this principle of varying these lines, as far as their lengths will admit of, will be
found to have its effect as gracefully as in the more lengthen'd muscles of the body.
It should be observ'd in the fingers, where the joints are but short, and the tendons straight;
and where beauty seems to submit, in some degree, to use, yet not so much but you trace
in a full-grown taper finger, these little winding lines among the wrinkles, or in (what is more
pretty because more simple) the dimples of the nuckles. As we always distinguish things
best by seeing their reverse set in opposition with them; if fig. 82 T p. II, by the straightness
of its lines, shews fig. 83 T p. II, to have some little taste in it, tho' it is so slightly sketch'd;](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-20-320.jpg)
![the difference will more evidently appear when you in like manner compare a straight coarse
finger in common life with the taper dimpled one of a fine lady.
There is an elegant degree of plumpness peculiar to the skin of the softer sex, that
occasions these delicate dimplings in all their other joints, as well as these of the fingers;
which so perfectly distinguishes them from those even of a graceful man; and which,
assisted by the more soften'd shapes of the muscles underneath, presents to the eye all the
varieties in the whole figure of the body, with gentler and fewer parts more sweetly
connected together, and with such a fine simplicity as will always give the turn of the female
frame, represented in the Venus [Fig. 13 p. I], the preference to that of the Apollo [Fig. 12
p. I].
Now whoever can conceive lines thus constantly flowing, and delicately varying over every
part of the body even to the fingers ends, and will call to his remembrance what led us to
this last description of what the Italians call, Il poco piu (the little more that is expected from
the hand of a master) will, in my mind, want very little more than what his own observation
on the works of art and nature will lead him to, to acquire a true idea of the word Taste,
when applied to form; however inexplicable this word may hitherto have been imagined.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-21-320.jpg)
![We have all along had recourse chiefly to the works of the ancients, not because the
moderns have not produced some as excellent; but because the works of the former are
more generally known: nor would we have it thought, that either of them have ever yet
come up to the utmost beauty of nature. Who but a bigot, even to the antiques, will say that
he has not seen faces and necks, hands and arms in living women, that even the Grecian
Venus doth but coarsely imitate?
And what sufficient reason can be given why the same may not be said of the rest of the
body?
CHAPTER XI.
Of Proportion.
If anyone should ask, what it is that constitutes a fine-proportion'd human figure? how ready
and seemingly decisive is the common answer: a just symmetry and harmony of parts with
respect to the whole. But as probably this vague answer took its rise from doctrines not
belonging to form, or idle schemes built on them, I apprehend it will cease to be thought
much to the purpose after a proper enquiry has been made.
Preparatory to which, it becomes necessary in this place, to mention one reason more which
may be added to those given in the introduction, for my having persuaded the reader to
consider objects scoop'd out like thin shells; which is, that partly by this conception, he may
be the better able to separate and keep asunder the two following general ideas, as we will
call them, belonging to form; which are apt to coincide and mix with each other in the mind,
and which it is necessary (for the sake of making each more fully and particularly clear)
should be kept apart, and consider'd singly.
First, the general ideas of what hath already been discussed in the foregoing chapters,
which only comprehends the surface of form, viewing it in no other light than merely as
being ornamental or not.
Secondly, that general idea, now to be discussed, which we commonly have of form
altogether, as arising chiefly from a fitness to some design'd purpose or use.
Hitherto our main drift hath been to establish and illustrate the first idea only, by shewing,
first the nature of variety, and then its effects on the mind; with the manner how such
impressions are made by means of the different feelings given to the eye, from its
movements in tracing and coursing[5] over surfaces of all kinds.
[5] See Chapter V, page 25.
The surface of a piece of ornament, that hath every turn in it that lines are capable of
moving into, and at the same time no way applied, nor of any manner of use, but merely to
entertain the eye, would be such an object as would answer to this first idea alone.
The figure like a leaf, at the bottom of plate I, near to fig. 67, is something of this kind; it
was taken from an ash-tree, and was a sort of Lusus naturæ, growing only like an
excressence, but so beautiful in the lines of its shell-like windings, as would have been](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-22-320.jpg)
![that admirable quality, and partly destroy that delicate fitness of his make; but then a quality
in movement, superior to that of speed, would be given to him by the addition, as he would
be render'd thereby more fit to move with ease in such varied, or graceful directions, as are
so delightful to the eye in the carriage of the fine manag'd war-horse; and as at the same
time, something stately and graceful would be added to his figure, which before could only
be said to have an elegant neatness. This noble creature stands foremost among brutes;
and it is but consistent with nature's propriety, that the most useful animal in the brute-
creation, should be thus signalized also for the most beauty.
Yet, properly speaking, no living creatures are capable of moving in such truly varied and
graceful directions, as the human species; and it would be needless to say how much
superior in beauty their forms and textures likewise are. And surely also after what has been
said relating to figure and motion, it is plain and evident that nature has thought fit to make
beauty of proportion, and beauty of movement, necessary to each other: so that the
observation before made on animals, will hold equally good with regard to man: i. e. that he
who is most exquisitely well-proportion'd is most capable of exquisite movements, such as
ease and grace in deportment, or in dancing.
It may be a sort of collateral confirmation of what has been said of this method of nature's
working, as well as otherwise worth our notice, that when any parts belonging to the human
body are conceal'd, and not immediately concern'd in movement, all such ornamental
shapes, as evidently appear in the muscles and bones[6], are totally neglected as
unnecessary, for nature doth nothing in vain! this is plainly the case of the intestines, none
of them having the least beauty, as to form, except the heart; which noble part, and indeed
kind of first mover, is a simple and well-varied figure; conformable to which, some of the
most elegant Roman urns and vases have been fashion'd.
[6] See Chapter IX on Compositions with the Serpentine-line.
Now, thus much being kept in remembrance, our next step will be to speak of, first, general
measurements; such as the whole height of the body to its breadth, or the length of a limb
to its thickness: and, secondly, of such appearances of dimensions as are too intricately
varied to admit of a description by lines.
The former will be confined to a very few straight lines, crossing each other, which will easily
be understood by everyone; but the latter will require somewhat more attention, because it
will extend to the precision of every modification, bound, or limit, of the human figure.
To be somewhat more explicit. As to the first part, I shall begin with shewing what
practicable sort of measuring may be used in order to produce the most proper variety in the
proportions of the parts of any body. I say, practicable, because the vast variety of intricately
situated parts, belonging to the human form, will not admit of measuring the distances of
one part by another, by lines or points, beyond a certain degree or number, without great
perplexity in the operation itself, or confusion to the imagination. For instance, say, a line
representing one breadth and an half of the wrist, would be equal to the true breadth of the
thickest part of the arm above the elbow; may it not then be ask'd, what part of the wrist is
meant? for if you place a pair of calipers a little nearer or further from the hand, the
distance of the points will differ, and so they will if they are moved close to the wrist all
round, because it is flatter one way than the other; but suppose, for argument sake, one
certain diameter should be fix'd upon; may it not again be ask'd, how is it to be apply'd, if to
the flattest side of the arm or the roundest, and how far from the elbow, and must it be](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-25-320.jpg)
![when the arm is extended or when it is bent? for this also will make a sensible difference,
because in the latter position, the muscle, call'd the biceps, in the front of that part of the
arm, swells up like a ball one way, and narrows itself another; nay all the muscles shift their
appearances in different movements, so that whatever may have been pretended by some
authors, no exact mathematical measurements by lines, can be given for the true proportion
of a human body.
It comes then to this, that no longer than whilst we suppose all the lengths and breadths of
the body, or limbs, to be as regular figures as cylinders, or as the leg, figure 68 in plate I,
which is as round as a rolling-stone, are the measures of lengths to breadths practicable, or
of any use to the knowledge of proportion: so that as all mathematical schemes are foreign
to this purpose, we will endeavour to root them quite out of our way: therefore I must not
omit taking notice, that Albert Durer, Lomazzo, (see two tasteless figures taken from their
books of proportion [Fig. 55 p. I]) and some others, have not only puzzled mankind with a
heap of minute unnecessary divisions, but also with a strange notion that those divisions are
govern'd by the laws of music; which mistake they seem to have been led into, by having
seen certain uniform and consonant divisions upon one string produce harmony to the ear,
and by persuading themselves, that similar distances in lines belonging to form, would, in
like manner, delight the eye. The very reverse of which has been shewn to be true, in
Chapter III, on Uniformity. "The length of the foot," say they, "in respect to the breadth,
makes a double suprabipartient, a diapason, and a diatesseron[7]:" which, in my opinion,
would have been full as applicable to the ear, or to a plant, or to a tree, or any other form
whatsoever; yet these sort of notions have so far prevail'd by time, that the words, harmony
of parts, seem as applicable to form, as to music.
[7] Note, these authors assure you, that this curious method of measuring, will produce beauty far beyond any
nature doth afford. Lomazzo, recommends also another scheme, with a triangle, to correct the poverty of
nature, as they express themselves. These nature-menders put one in mind of Gulliver's tailor at Laputa, who,
having taken measure of him for a suit of clothes, with a rule, quadrant, and compasses, after a considerable
time spent, brought them home ill-made.
Notwithstanding the absurdity of the above schemes, such measures as are to be taken from
antique statues, may be of some service to painters and sculptors, especially to young
beginners, but nothing nigh of such use to them, as the measures, taken the same way,
from ancient buildings, have been, and are, to architects and builders; because the latter
have to do with little else but plain geometrical figures: which measures, however, serve only
in copying what has been done before.
The few measures I shall speak of, for the setting out the general dimensions of a figure,
shall be taken by straight lines only, for the more easy conception of what may indeed be
properly call'd, gaging the contents of the body, supposing it solid like a marble statue, as
the wires were described to do [Fig. 2 p. I] in the introduction: by which plain method, clear](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-26-320.jpg)
![ideas may be acquir'd of what alone seem to me to require measuring, of what certain
lengths to what breadths make the most eligible proportions in general.
The most general dimensions of a body, or limbs, are lengths, breadths, or thicknesses: now
the whole gentility of a figure, according to its character, depends upon the first
proportioning these lines or wires (which are its measures) properly one to another; and the
more varied these lines are, with respect to each other, the more may the future divisions be
varied likewise, that are to be made on them; and of course the less varied these lines are,
the parts influenced by them, as they must conform themselves to them, must have less
variety too. For example, the exact cross [Fig. 69 R p. II] of two equal lines, cutting each
other in the middle, would confine the figure of a man, drawn conformable to them, to the
disagreeable character of his being as broad as he is long. And the two lines crossing each
other, to make the height and breadth of a figure, will want variety a contrary way, by one
line being very short in proportion to the other, and therefore, also incapable of producing a
figure of tolerable variety. To prove this, it will be very easy for the reader to make the
experiment, by drawing a figure or two (tho' ever so imperfectly) confin'd within such limits.
There is a medium between these, proper for every character, which the eye will easily and
accurately determine.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-27-320.jpg)
![Thus, if the lines, fig. [70 R p. II], were to be the measure of the extreme length and
breadth, set out either for the figure of a man or a vase, the eye soon sees the longest of
these is not quite sufficiently so, in proportion to the other, for a genteel man; and yet it
would make a vase too taper to be elegant; no rule or compasses would decide this matter
either so quickly or so precisely as a good eye. It may be observed, that minute differences
in great lengths, are of little or no consequence as to proportion, because they are not to be
discerned; for a man is half an inch shorter when he goes to bed at night, than when he
rises in the morning, without the possibility of its being perceived. In case of a wager the
application of a rule or compasses may be necessary, but seldom on any other occasion.
Thus much I apprehend is sufficient for the consideration of general lengths to breadths.
Where, by the way, I apprehend I have plainly shewn, that there is no practicable rule, by
lines, for minutely setting out proportions for the human body, and if there were, the eye
alone must determine us in our choice of what is most pleasing to itself.
Thus having dispatch'd general dimension, which we may say is almost as much of
proportion, as is to be seen when we have our cloaths on: I shall in the second, and more
extensive method proposed for considering it, set out in the familiar path of common
observation, and appeal as I go on to our usual feeling, or joint-sensation, of figure and
motion.
Perhaps by mentioning two or three known instances it will be found that almost every one
is farther advanced in the knowledge of this speculative part of proportion than he imagines;
especially he who hath been used to observe naked figures doing bodily exercise, and more
especially if he be any way interested in the success of them; and the better he is
acquainted with the nature of the exercise itself, still the better judge he becomes of the
figure that is to perform it. For this reason, no sooner are two boxers stript to fight, but even
a butcher, thus skill'd, shews himself a considerable critic in proportion; and on this sort of
judgment, often gives, or takes the odds, at bare sight only of the combatants. I have heard
a blacksmith harangue like an anatomist, or sculptor, on the beauty of a boxer's figure, tho'
not perhaps in the same terms; and I firmly believe, that one of our common proficients in
the athletic art, would be able to instruct and direct the best sculptor living, (who hath not
seen, or is wholly ignorant of this exercise) in what would give the statue of an English-
boxer, a much better proportion, as to character, than is to be seen, even in the famous
group of antique boxers, (or as some call them, Roman wrestlers) so much admired to this
day.
Indeed, as many parts of the body are so constantly kept cover'd, the proportion of the
whole cannot be equally known; but as stockings are so close and thin a covering, every one
judges of the different shapes and proportions of legs with great accuracy. The ladies always](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-28-320.jpg)
![following descriptive manner of disposing of them, in order to form the idea of a fine-
proportion'd figure.
Having set up the Antinous as our pattern, we will suppose there were placed on one side of
it, the unwieldy elephant-like figure of an Atlas, made up of such thick bones and muscles,
as would best fit him for supporting a vast weight, according to his character of extreme
heavy strength. And, on the other side, imagine the slim figure of a Mercury, every where
neatly formed for the utmost light agility, with slender bones and taper muscles fit for his
nimble bounding from the ground.—Both these figures must be supposed of equal height,
and not exceeding six foot[8].
[8] If the scale of either of these proportions were to exceed six foot in the life, the quality of strength in one,
and agility in the other, would gradually decrease, the larger the person grew. There are sufficient proofs of
this, both from mechanical reasonings and common observation.
Our extremes thus placed, now imagine the Atlas throwing off by degrees, certain portions
of bone and muscle, proper for the attainment of light agility, as if aiming at the Mercury's
airy form and quality, whilst on the other hand, see the Mercury augmenting his taper figure
by equal degrees, and growing towards an Atlas in equal time, by receiving to the like places
from whence they came, the very quantities that the other had been casting off, when, as
they approach each other in weight, their forms of course may be imagined to grow more
and more alike, till at a certain point of time, they meet in just similitude; which being an
exact medium between the two extremes, we may thence conclude it to be the precise form
of exact proportion, fittest for perfect active strength or graceful movement; such as the
Antinous we proposed to imitate and figure in the mind[9].
[9] The jocky who knows to an ounce what flesh or bone in a horse is fittest for speed or strength, will as
easily conceive the like process between the strongest dray-horse and the fleetest racer, and soon conclude,
that the fine war-horse must be the medium between the two extremes.
I am apprehensive that this part of my scheme, for explaining exact proportion, may not be
thought so sufficiently determinate as could be wished: be this as it will, I must submit it to
the reader, as my best resource in so difficult a case: and shall therefore beg leave to try to
illustrate it a little more, by observing, that, in like manner, any two opposite colours in the
rainbow, form a third between them, by thus imparting to each other their peculiar qualities;
as for example, the brightest yellow, and the lively blue that is placed at some distance from
it, visibly approach, and blend by interchangable degrees, and, as above, temper rather than
destroy each other's vigour, till they meet in one firm compound; whence, at a certain point,
the sight of what they were originally, is quite lost; but in their stead, a most pleasing green
is found, which colour nature hath chose for the vestment of the earth, and with the beauty
of which the eye is never tired.
From the order of the ideas which the description of the above three figures may have
raised in the mind, we may easily compose between them, various other proportions. And as
the painter, by means of a certain order in the arrangement of the colours upon his pallet,
readily mixes up what kind of tint he pleases, so may we mix up and compound in the
imagination such fit parts as will be consistent with this or that particular character, or at
least be able thereby to discover how such characters are composed, when we see them
either in art or nature.
But perhaps even the word character, as it relates to form, may not be quite understood by
every one, tho' it is so frequently used: nor do I remember to have seen it explained any](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-30-320.jpg)
![where. Therefore on this account—and also as it will further shew the use of thinking of
form and motion together, it will not be improper to observe,—that notwithstanding a
character, in this sense, chiefly depends on a figure being remarkable as to its form, either in
some particular part, or altogether; yet surely no figure, be it ever so singular, can be
perfectly conceived as a character, till we find it connected with some remarkable
circumstance or cause, for such particularity of appearance; for instance, a fat bloted person
doth not call to mind the character of a Silenus, till we have joined the idea of
voluptuousness with it; so likewise strength to support, and clumsiness of figure, are united,
as well in the character of an Atlas as in a porter.
When we consider the great weight chairmen often have to carry, do we not readily consent
that there is a propriety and fitness in the tuscan order of their legs, by which they properly
become characters as to figure?
Watermen too, are of a distinct cast, or character, whose legs are no less remarkable for
their smallness: for as there is naturally the greatest call for nutriment to the parts that are
most exercised, so of course these that lye so much stretched out, are apt to dwindle, or not
grow to their full size. There is scarcely a waterman that rows upon the Thames, whose
figure doth not confirm this observation. Therefore were I to paint the character of a
Charon, I would thus distinguish his make from that of a common man's; and, in spite of the
word low, venture to give him a broad pair of shoulders, and spindle shanks, whether I had
the authority of an antique statue, or basso-relievo, for it or not.
May be, I cannot throw a stronger light on what has been hitherto said of proportion, than
by animadverting on a remarkable beauty in the Apollo-belvedere; which hath given it the
preference even to the Antinous: I mean a super-addition of greatness, to at least as much
beauty and grace, as is found in the latter.
These two master-pieces of art, are seen together in the same palace at Rome, where the
Antinous fills the spectator with admiration only, whilst the Apollo strikes him with surprise,
and, as travellers express themselves, with an appearance of something more than human;
which they of course are always at a loss to describe: and this effect, they say, is the more
astonishing, as upon examination its disproportion is evident even to a common eye. One of
the best sculptors we have in England, who lately went to see them, confirm'd to me what
has been now said, particularly as to the legs and thighs being too long, and too large for
the upper parts. And Andrea Sacchi, one of the great Italian painters, seems to have been of
the same opinion, or he would hardly have given his Apollo, crowning Pasquilini the
musician, the exact proportion of the Antinous, (in a famous picture of his now in England)
as otherwise it seems to be a direct copy from the Apollo.
Although in very great works we often see an inferior part neglected, yet here it cannot be
the case, because in a fine statue, just proportion is one of its essential beauties: therefore it
stands to reason, that these limbs must have been lengthened on purpose, otherwise it
might easily have been avoided.
So that if we examine the beauties of this figure thoroughly, we may reasonably conclude,
that what has been hitherto thought so unaccountably excellent in its general appearance,
hath been owing to what hath seem'd a blemish in a part of it: but let us endeavour to make
this matter as clear as possible, as it may add more force to what has been said.
Statues by being bigger than life, (as this is one, and larger than the Antinous) always gain
some nobleness in effect, according to the principle of quantity[10] but this alone is not](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-31-320.jpg)
![sufficient to give what is properly to be called, greatness in proportion; for were figures 17
and 18, in plate I, to be drawn or carved by a scale of ten feet high, they would still be but
pigmy proportions, as, on the other hand, a figure of but two inches, may represent a
gigantic height.
[10] See Chapter VI.
Therefore greatness of proportion must be considered, as depending on the application of
quantity to those parts of the body where it can give more scope to its grace in movement,
as to the neck for the larger and swan-like turns of the head, and to the legs and thighs, for
the more ample sway of all the upper parts together.
By which we find that the Antinous's being equally magnified to the Apollo's height, would
not sufficiently produce that superiority of effect, as to greatness, so evidently seen in the
latter. The additions necessary to the production of this greatness in proportion, as it there
appears added to grace, must then be, by the proper application of them, to the parts
mention'd only.
I know not how further to prove this matter than by appealing to the reader's eye, and
common observation, as before.
The Antinous being allowed to have the justest proportion possible, let us see what addition,
upon the principle of quantity, can be made to it, without taking away any of its beauty.
If we imagine an addition of dimensions to the head, we shall immediately conceive it would
only deform—if to the hands or feet, we are sensible of something gross and ungenteel,—if
to the whole lengths of the arms, we feel they would be dangling and aukward—if by an
addition of length or breadth to the body, we know it would appear heavy and clumsy—
there remains then only the neck, with the legs and thighs to speak of; but, to these we
find, that not only certain additions may be admitted without causing any disagreeable
effect, but that thereby greatness, the last perfection as to proportion, is given to the human
form; as is evidently express'd in the Apollo: and may still be further confirmed by examining
the drawings of Parmigiano, where these particulars are seen in excess; yet on this account
his works are said, by all true connoisseurs, to have an inexpressible greatness of taste in
them, though otherwise very incorrect.
Let us now return to the two general ideas we set out with at the beginning of this chapter,
and recollect that under the first, on surface, I have shewn in what manner, and how far
human proportion is measureable, by varying the contents of the body, conformable to the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-32-320.jpg)
![given proportion of two lines. And that under the second and more extensive general idea of
form, as arising from fitness for movement, &c. I have endeavour'd to explain, by every
means I could devise, that every particular and minute dimension of the body, should
conform to such purposes of movement, &c. as have been first properly considered and
determined: on which conjunctively, the true proportion of every character must depend;
and is found so to do, by our joint-sensation of bulk and motion. Which account of the
proportion of the human body, however imperfect, may possibly stand its ground, till one
more plausible shall be given.
As the Apollo [Fig. 12 p. I] has been only mention'd on account of the greatness of its
proportion, I think in justice to so fine a performance; and also as it is not foreign to the
point we have been upon, we may subjoin an Observation or two on its perfections.
Besides, what is commonly allow'd, if we consider it by the rules here given for constituting
or composing character, it will discover the author's great sagacity, in choosing a proportion
for this deity, which has served two noble purposes at once; in that these very dimensions
which appear to have given it so much dignity, are the same that are best fitted to produce
the utmost speed. And what could characterise the god of day, either so strongly or
elegantly, to be expressive in a statue, as superior swiftness, and beauty dignify'd? and how
poetically doth the action it is put into, carry on the allusion to speed,[11] as he is lightly
stepping forward, and seeming to shoot his arrows from him; if the arrows may be allowed
to signify the sun's rays? This at least may as well be supposed as the common surmise,
that he is killing the dragon, Python; which certainly is very inconsistent with so erect an
attitude, and benign an aspect[12].
[11]——the sun: which cometh forth as a bridegroom out of his chamber, and rejoiceth as a giant to run his
course. Psalm xix. 5.
[12] The accounts given, in relation to this statue, make it so highly probable that it was the great Apollo of
Delphos, that, for my own part, I make no manner of doubt of its being so.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-33-320.jpg)
![every object it sees, and to cause those more or less-pleasing vibrations of the optic nerves,
which serve to inform the mind concerning every different shape or figure that presents
itself.
The best light for seeing the shadows of objects truly, is, that which comes in at a common
sized window, where the sun doth not shine; I shall therefore speak of their order as seen
by this kind of light: and shall take the liberty in the present and following chapter, to
consider colours but as variegated shades, which together with common shades, will now be
divided into two general parts or branches.
The first we shall call prime tints, by which is meant any colour or colours on the surfaces of
objects; and the use we shall make of these different hues will be to consider them as
shades to one another. Thus gold is a shade to silver, &c. exclusive of those additional
shades which may be made in any degree by the privation of light.
The second branch may be called retiring shades, which gradate or go off by degrees, as figs.
[84 and 85 T p. II]. These shades, as they vary more or less, produce beauty, whether they
are occasioned by the privation of light, or made by the pencilings of art or nature.
When I come to treat of colouring, I shall particularly shew in what manner the gradating of
prime tints serve to the making a beautiful complexion; in this place we shall only observe
how nature hath by these gradating shades ornamented the surfaces of animals; fish
generally have this kind of shade from their backs downward; birds have their feathers
enriched with it; and many flowers, particularly the rose, shew it by the gradually-increasing
colours of their leaves.
The sky always gradates one way or other, and the rising or setting sun exhibits it in great
perfection, the imitating of which was Claud. de Loraine's peculiar excellence, and is now Mr.
Lambert's: there is so much of what is called harmony to the eye to be produced by this
shade, that I believe we may venture to say, in art it is the painter's gamut, which nature
has sweetly pointed out to us in what we call the eyes of a peacock's tail: and the nicest
needle-workers are taught to weave it into every flower and leaf, right or wrong, as if it was
as constantly to be observed as it is seen in flames of fire; because it is always found to
entertain the eye. There is a sort of needle-work called Irish-stitch, done in these shades
only; which pleases still, tho' it has long been out of fashion.
There is so strict an analogy between shade and sound, that they may well serve to
illustrate each other's qualities: for as sounds gradually decreasing and increasing give the
idea of progression from, or to the ear, just so do retiring shades shew progression, by
figuring it to the eye. Thus, as by objects growing still fainter, we judge of distances in
prospects, so by the decreasing noise of thunder, we form the idea of its moving further](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-36-320.jpg)
![from us. And with regard to their similitude in beauty, like as the gradating shade pleases
the eye, so the increasing, or swelling note, delights the ear.
I have call'd it the retiring shade, because by the successive, or continual change in its
appearance, it is equally instrumental with converging lines[13], in shewing how much
objects, or any parts of them, retire or recede from the eye; without which, a floor, or
horizontal-plane, would often seem to stand upright like a wall. And notwithstanding all the
other ways by which we learn to know at what distances things are from us, frequent
deceptions happen to the eye on account of deficiencies in this shade: for if the light
chances to be so disposed on objects as not to give this shade its true gradating
appearance, not only spaces are confounded, but round things appear flat, and flat ones
round.
[13] See p. 17. The two converging lines from the ship, to the point C, under fig. 47, plate I.
But although the retiring shade hath this property, when seen with converging lines, yet if it
describes no particular form, as none of those do in fig. 94, on top of plate II, it can only
appear as a flat-pencil'd shade; but being inclosed within some known boundary or out-line,
such as may signify a wall, a road, a globe, or any other form in perspective where the parts
retire, it will then shew its retiring quality: as for example, the retiring shade on the floor, in
plate II, which gradates from the dog's feet to those of the dancer's, shews, that by this
means a level appearance is given to the ground: so when a cube is put into true
perspective on paper, with lines only, which do but barely hint the directions every face of it
is meant to take, these shades make them seem to retire just as the perspective lines direct;
thus mutually compleating the idea of those recessions which neither of them alone could
do.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/53911-250321001141-f42b7654/85/New-Perspectives-on-HTML5-CSS3-JavaScript-6th-Edition-Carey-Solutions-Manual-37-320.jpg)
New Perspectives on HTML5 CSS3 JavaScript 6th Edition Carey Solutions Manual
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- 5. Discover the thorough instruction you need to build dynamic, interactive Web sites from scratch with NEW PERSPECTIVES ON HTML5, CSS3, AND JAVASCRIPT, 6E. This user-friendly book provides comprehensive coverage of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript with an inviting approach that starts with the basics and does not require any prior knowledge on the subject. Detailed explanations of key concepts and skills make even the most challenging topics clear and accessible. Case scenarios and case problems place the most complex concepts within an understandable and practical context. You develop important problem solving skills as you work through realistic exercises. Proven applications and an interesting approach help you retain the material and apply what you’ve learned in a professional environment. 1. Preface 2. Brief Contents 3. Table of Contents 4. Tutorial 1: Getting Started with HTML5: Creating a Website for a Food Vendor 5. Session 1.1 Visual Overview: The Structure of an HTML Document 6. Exploring the World Wide Web 7. Introducing HTML 8. Tools for Working with HTML 9. Exploring an HTML Document 10. Creating the Document Head 11. Adding Comments to Your Document 12. Session 1.1 Quick Check 13. Session 1.2 Visual Overview: HTML Page Elements 14. Writing the Page Body 15. Linking an HTML Document to a Style Sheet 16. Working with Character Sets and Special Characters 17. Working with Inline Images 18. Working with Block Quotes and Other Elements 19. Session 1.2 Quick Check 20. Session 1.3 Visual Overview: Lists and Hypertext Links 21. Working with Lists 22. Working with Hypertext Links 23. Specifying the Folder Path 24. Linking to a Location within a Document 25. Linking to the Internet and Other Resources 26. Working with Hypertext Attributes 27. Session 1.3 Quick Check 28. Review Assignments 29. Case Problems 30. Tutorial 2: Getting Started with CSS: Designing a Website for a Fitness Club 31. Session 2.1 Visual Overview: CSS Styles and Colors 32. Introducing CSS 33. Exploring Style Rules 34. Creating a Style Sheet
- 6. 35. Working with Color in CSS 36. Employing Progressive Enhancement 37. Session 2.1 Quick Check 38. Session 2.2 Visual Overview: CSS Typography 39. Exploring Selector Patterns 40. Working with Fonts 41. Setting the Font Size 42. Controlling Spacing and Indentation 43. Working with Font Styles 44. Session 2.2 Quick Check 45. Session 2.3 Visual Overview: Pseudo Elements and Classes 46. Formatting Lists 47. Working with Margins and Padding 48. Using Pseudo-Classes and Pseudo-Elements 49. Generating Content with CSS 50. Inserting Quotation Marks 51. Session 2.3 Quick Check 52. Review Assignments 53. Case Problems 54. Tutorial 3: Designing a Page Layout: Creating a Website for a Chocolatier 55. Session 3.1 Visual Overview: Page Layout with Floating Elements 56. Introducing the display Style 57. Creating a Reset Style Sheet 58. Exploring Page Layout Designs 59. Working with Width and Height 60. Floating Page Content 61. Session 3.1 Quick Check 62. Session 3.2 Visual Overview: Page Layout Grids 63. Introducing Grid Layouts 64. Setting up a Grid 65. Outlining a Grid 66. Introducing CSS Grids 67. Session 3.2 Quick Check 68. Session 3.3 Visual Overview: Layout with Positioning Styles 69. Positioning Objects 70. Handling Overflow 71. Clipping an Element 72. Stacking Elements 73. Session 3.3 Quick Check 74. Review Assignments 75. Case Problems 76. Tutorial 4: Graphic Design with CSS: Creating a Graphic Design for a Genealogy Website 77. Session 4.1 Visual Overview: Backgrounds and Borders 78. Creating Figure Boxes 79. Exploring Background Styles
- 7. 80. Working with Borders 81. Session 4.1 Quick Check 82. Session 4.2 Visual Overview: Shadows and Gradients 83. Creating Drop Shadows 84. Applying a Color Gradient 85. Creating Semi-Transparent Objects 86. Session 4.2 Quick Check 87. Session 4.3 Visual Overview: Transformations and Filters 88. Transforming Page Objects 89. Exploring CSS Filters 90. Working with Image Maps 91. Session 4.3 Quick Check 92. Review Assignments 93. Case Problems 94. Tutorial 5: Designing for the Mobile Web: Creating a Mobile Website for a Daycare Center 95. Session 5.1 Visual Overview: Media Queries 96. Introducing Responsive Design 97. Introducing Media Queries 98. Exploring Viewports and Device Width 99. Creating a Mobile Design 100. Creating a Tablet Design 101. Creating a Desktop Design 102. Session 5.1 Quick Check 103. Session 5.2 Visual Overview: Flexbox Layouts 104. Introducing Flexible Boxes 105. Working with Flex Items 106. Reordering Page Content with Flexboxes 107. Exploring Flexbox Layouts 108. Creating a Navicon Menu 109. Session 5.2 Quick Check 110. Session 5.3 Visual Overview: Print Styles 111. Designing for Printed Media 112. Working with the @page Rule 113. Working with Page Breaks 114. Session 5.3 Quick Check 115. Review Assignments 116. Case Problems 117. Tutorial 6: Working with Tables and Columns: Creating a Program Schedule for a Radio Station 118. Session 6.1 Visual Overview: Structure of a Web Table 119. Introducing Web Tables 120. Adding Table Borders with CSS 121. Spanning Rows and Columns 122. Creating a Table Caption 123. Session 6.1 Quick Check
- 8. 124. Session 6.2 Visual Overview: Rows and Column Groups 125. Creating Row Groups 126. Creating Column Groups 127. Exploring CSS Styles and Web Tables 128. Tables and Responsive Design 129. Designing a Column Layout 130. Session 6.2 Quick Check 131. Review Assignments 132. Case Problems 133. Tutorial 7: Designing a Web Form: Creating a Survey Form 134. Session 7.1 Visual Overview: Structure of a Web Form 135. Introducing Web Forms 136. Starting a Web Form 137. Creating a Field Set 138. Creating Input Boxes 139. Adding Field Labels 140. Designing a Form Layout 141. Defining Default Values and Placeholders 142. Session 7.1 Quick Check 143. Session 7.2 Visual Overview: Web Form Widgets 144. Entering Date and Time Values 145. Creating a Selection List 146. Creating Option Buttons 147. Creating Check Boxes 148. Creating a Text Area Box 149. Session 7.2 Quick Check 150. Session 7.3 Visual Overview: Data Validation 151. Entering Numeric Data 152. Suggesting Options with Data Lists 153. Working with Form Buttons 154. Validating a Web Form 155. Applying Inline Validation 156. Session 7.3 Quick Check 157. Review Assignments 158. Case Problems 159. Tutorial 8: Enhancing a Website with Multimedia: Working with Sound, Video, and Animation 160. Session 8.1 Visual Overview: Playing Web Audio 161. Introducing Multimedia on the Web 162. Working with the audio Element 163. Exploring Embedded Objects 164. Session 8.1 Quick Check 165. Session 8.2 Visual Overview: Playing Web Video 166. Exploring Digital Video 167. Using the HTML5 video Element 168. Adding a Text Track to Video
- 9. 169. Using Third-Party Video Players 170. Session 8.2 Quick Check 171. Session 8.3 Visual Overview: Transitions and Animations 172. Creating Transitions with CSS 173. Animating Objects with CSS 174. Session 8.3 Quick Check 175. Review Assignments 176. Case Problems 177. Tutorial 9: Getting Started with JavaScript: Creating a Countdown Clock 178. Session 9.1 Visual Overview: Creating a JavaScript File 179. Introducing JavaScript 180. Working with the script Element 181. Creating a JavaScript Program 182. Debugging Your Code 183. Session 9.1 Quick Check 184. Session 9.2 Visual Overview: JavaScript Variables and Dates 185. Introducing Objects 186. Changing Properties and Applying Methods 187. Writing HTML Code 188. Working with Variables 189. Working with Date Objects 190. Session 9.2 Quick Check 191. Session 9.3 Visual Overview: JavaScript Functions and Expressions 192. Working with Operators and Operands 193. Working with the Math Object 194. Working with JavaScript Functions 195. Running Timed Commands 196. Controlling How JavaScript Works with Numeric Values 197. Session 9.3 Quick Check 198. Review Assignments 199. Case Problems 200. Tutorial 10: Exploring Arrays, Loops, and Conditional Statements: Creating a Monthly Calendar 201. Session 10.1 Visual Overview: Creating and Using Arrays 202. Introducing the Monthly Calendar 203. Introducing Arrays 204. Session 10.1 Quick Check 205. Session 10.2 Visual Overview: Applying a Program Loop 206. Working with Program Loops 207. Comparison and Logical Operators 208. Program Loops and Arrays 209. Session 10.2 Quick Check 210. Session 10.3 Visual Overview: Conditional Statements 211. Introducing Conditional Statements 212. Completing the Calendar App 213. Managing Program Loops and Conditional Statements
- 10. 214. Session 10.3 Quick Check 215. Review Assignments 216. Case Problems 217. Tutorial 11: Working with Events and Styles: Designing an Interactive Puzzle 218. Session 11.1 Visual Overview: Event Handlers and Event Objects 219. Introducing JavaScript Events 220. Creating an Event Handler 221. Using the Event Object 222. Exploring Object Properties 223. Session 11.1 Quick Check 224. Session 11.2 Visual Overview: Event Listeners and Cursors 225. Working with Mouse Events 226. Introducing the Event Model 227. Exploring Keyboard Events 228. Changing the Cursor Style 229. Session 11.2 Quick Check 230. Session 11.3 Visual Overview: Anonymous Functions and Dialog Boxes 231. Working with Functions as Objects 232. Displaying Dialog Boxes 233. Session 11.3 Quick Check 234. Review Assignments 235. Case Problems 236. Tutorial 12: Working with Document Nodes and Style Sheets: Creating a Dynamic Document Outline 237. Session 12.1 Visual Overview: Exploring the Node Tree 238. Introducing Nodes 239. Creating and Appending Nodes 240. Working with Node Types, Names, and Values 241. Session 12.1 Quick Check 242. Session 12.2 Visual Overview: Exploring Attribute Nodes 243. Creating a Nested List 244. Working with Attribute Nodes 245. Session 12.2 Quick Check 246. Session 12.3 Visual Overview: Style Sheets and Style Rules 247. Working with Style Sheets 248. Working with Style Sheet Rules 249. Session 12.3 Quick Check 250. Review Assignments 251. Case Problems 252. Tutorial 13: Programming for Web Forms: Creatings Forms for Orders and Payments 253. Session 13.1 Visual Overview: Forms and Elements 254. Exploring the Forms Object 255. Working with Form Elements 256. Working with Input Fields 257. Working with Selection Lists
- 11. 258. Working with Options Buttons and Check Boxes 259. Formatting Numeric Values 260. Applying Form Events 261. Working with Hidden Fields 262. Session 13.1 Quick Check 263. Session 13.2 Visual Overview: Passing Data between Forms 264. Sharing Data between Forms 265. Working with Text Strings 266. Introducing Regular Expressions 267. Programming with Regular Expressions 268. Session 13.2 Quick Check 269. Session 13.3 Visual Overview: Validating Form Data 270. Validating Data with JavaScript 271. Testing a Form Field against a Regular Expression 272. Testing for Legitimate Card Numbers 273. Session 13.3 Quick Check 274. Review Assignments 275. Case Problems 276. Tutorial 14: Exploring Object-Based Programming: Designing an Online Poker Game 277. Session 14.1 Visual Overview: Custom Objects, Properties, and Methods 278. Working with Nested Functions 279. Introducing Custom Objects 280. Session 14.1 Quick Check 281. Session 14.2 Visual Overview: Object Classes and Prototypes 282. Defining an Object Type 283. Working with Object Prototypes 284. Session 14.2 Quick Check 285. Session 14.3 Visual Overview: Objects and Arrays 286. Combining Objects 287. Combining Objects and Arrays 288. Session 14.3 Quick Check 289. Review Assignments 290. Case Problems 291. Appendix A: Color Names with Color Values, and HTML Character Entities 292. Appendix B: HTML Elements and Attributes 293. Appendix C: Cascading Styles and Selectors 294. Appendix D: Making the Web More Accessible 295. Appendix E: Designing for the Web 296. Appendix F: Page Validation with XHTML 297. Glossary 298. Index
- 12. Other documents randomly have different content
- 13. winding forms, mixt with foliage, twisting about them, are made use of in all ornaments; a kind of composition calculated merely to please the eye. Divest these of their serpentine twinings, and they immediately lose all grace, and return to the poor gothic taste they were in an hundred years ago [Fig. 63 B p. II]. Fig. [64 B p. II] is meant to represent the manner, in which most of the muscles, (those of the limbs in particular) are twisted round the bones, and conform themselves to their length and shape; but with no anatomical exactness. As to the running of their fibres, some anatomists have compared them to skains of thread, loose in the middle, and tight at each end, which, when they are thus consider'd as twisted contrary ways round the bone, gives the strongest idea possible of a composition of serpentine-lines.
- 14. Of these fine winding forms then are the muscles and bones composed, and which, by their varied situations with each other, become more intricately pleasing, and form a continued waving of winding forms from one into the other, as may be best seen by examining a good anatomical figure, part of which you have here represented, in the muscular leg and thigh, fig. [65 p. I]: which shews the serpentine forms and varied situations of the muscles, as they appear when the skin is taken off. It was drawn from a plaster of paris figure cast off nature, the original of which was prepared for the mould by Cowper, the famous anatomist. In this last figure, as the skin is taken off the parts are too distinctly traced by the eye, for that intricate delicacy which is necessary to the utmost beauty; yet the winding figures of the muscles, with the variety of their situations, must always
- 15. be allow'd elegant forms: however, they lose in the imagination some of the beauty, which they really have, by the idea of their being flayed; nevertheless, by what has already been shewn both of them and the bones, the human frame hath more of its parts composed of serpentine-lines than any other object in nature; which is a proof both of its superior beauty to all others, and, at the same time, that its beauty proceeds from those lines: for although they may be required sometimes to be bulging in their twists, as in the thick swelling muscles of the Hercules, yet elegance and greatness of taste is still preserved; but when these lines lose so much of their twists as to become almost straight, all elegance of taste vanishes. Thus fig. [66 p. I], was also taken from nature, and drawn in the same position, but treated in a more dry, stiff, and what the painters call, sticky manner, than the nature of flesh is ever capable of appearing in, unless when its moisture is dryed away: it must be allowed, that the parts of this figure are of as right dimensions, and as truly situated, as in the former; it wants only the true twist of the lines to give it taste. To prove this further, and to put the mean effect of these plain or unvaried lines in a stronger light, see fig. [67 p. I], where, by the uniform, unvaried shapes and situation of the muscles, without so much as a waving-line in them, it becomes so wooden a form, that he that can fashion the leg of a joint-stool may carve this figure as well as the best sculptor. In the same manner, divest one of the best antique statues of all its serpentine winding parts, and it becomes from an exquisite piece of art, a figure of such ordinary lines and unvaried contents, that a common stone-mason or carpenter, with the help of his rule, calipers, and compasses, might carve out an exact imitation of it: and were it not for these lines a turner, in his lathe, might turn a much finer neck than that of the grecian Venus, as according to the common notion of a beautiful neck, it would be more truly round. For the same reason, legs much swoln with disease, are as easy to imitate as a post, having lost their drawing, as the painters call it; that is, having their serpentine-lines all effaced, by the skin's being equally puffed up, as figure [68].
- 16. If in comparing these three figures one with another, the reader, notwithstanding the prejudice his imagination may have conceiv'd against them, as anatomical figures, has been enabled only to perceive that one of them is not so disagreeable as the others; he will easily be led to see further, that this tendency to beauty in one, is not owing to any greater degree of exactness in the proportions of its parts, but merely to the more pleasing turns, and intertwistings of the lines, which compose its external form; for in all the three figures the same proportions have been observ'd, and, on that account, they have all an equal claim to beauty. And if he pursues this anatomical enquiry but a very little further, just to form a true idea of the elegant use that is made of the skin and fat beneath it, to conceal from the eye all that is hard and disagreeable, and at the same time to preserve to it whatever is necessary in the shapes of the parts beneath, to give grace and beauty to the whole limb: he will find himself insensibly led into the principles of that grace and beauty which is to be found in well-turn'd limbs, in fine, elegant, healthy life, or in those of the best antique statues; as well as into the reason why his eye has so often unknowingly been pleased and delighted with them. Thus, in all other parts of the body, as well as these, wherever, for the sake of the necessary motion of the parts, with proper strength and agility, the insertions of the muscles are too hard and sudden, their swellings too bold, or the hollows between them too deep, for their out-lines to be beautiful; nature most judiciously softens these hardnesses, and plumps up these vacancies with a proper supply of fat, and covers the whole with the soft, smooth, springy, and, in delicate life, almost transparent skin, which, conforming itself to the external shape of all the parts beneath, expresses to the eye the idea of its contents with the utmost delicacy of beauty and grace. The skin, therefore, thus tenderly embracing, and gently conforming itself to the varied shapes of every one of the outward muscles of the body, soften'd underneath by the fat, where, otherwise, the same hard lines and furrows would appear, as we find come on with age in the face, and with labour, in the limbs, is evidently a shell-like surface (to keep up the idea I set out with) form'd with the utmost delicacy in nature; and therefore the most proper subject of the study of every one, who desires to imitate the works of nature, as a master should do, or to judge of the performances of others as a real connoisseur ought. I cannot be too long, I think, on this subject, as so much will be found to depend upon it; and therefore shall endeavour to give a clear idea of the different effect such anatomical figures have on the eye, from what the same parts have, when cover'd by the fat and skin; by supposing a small wire (that has lost its spring and so will retain every shape it is twisted into) to be held fast to the out-side of the hip (fig. 65. plate I) and thence brought down the other side of the thigh obliquely over the calf of the leg, down to the outward ancle (all the while press'd so close as to touch and conform itself to the shape of every muscle it passes
- 17. over) and then to be taken off. If this wire be now examined it will be found that the general uninterrupted flowing twist, which the winding round the limbs would otherwise have given to it, is broken into little better than so many separate plain curves, by the sharp indentures it every where has receiv'd on being closely press'd in between the muscles. Suppose, in the next place, such a wire was in the same manner twisted round a living well- shaped leg and thigh, or those of a fine statue; when you take it off you will find no such sharp indentures, nor any of those regular engralings (as the heralds express it) which displeased the eye before. On the contrary, you will see how gradually the changes in its shape are produced; how imperceptibly the different curvatures run into each other, and how easily the eye glides along the varied wavings of its sweep. To enforce this still further, if a line were to be drawn by a pencil exactly where these wires have been supposed to pass, the point of the pencil, in the muscular leg and thigh, would perpetually meet with stops and rubs, whilst in the others it would flow from muscle to muscle along the elastic skin, as pleasantly as the lightest skiff dances over the gentlest wave. This idea of the wire, retaining thus the shape of the parts it passes over, seems of so much consequence, that I would by no means have it forgot; as it may properly be consider'd as one of the threads (or outlines) of the shell (or external surface) of the human form: and the frequently recurring to it will assist the imagination in its conceptions of those parts of it, whose shapes are most intricately varied: for the same sort of observations may be made, with equal justice, on the shapes of ever so many such wires twisted in the same manner in ever so many directions over every part of a well made man, woman, or statue.
- 18. And if the reader will follow in his imagination the most exquisite turns of the chisel in the hands of a master, when he is putting the finishing touches to a statue; he will soon be led to understand what it is the real judges expect from the hand of such a master, which the Italians call, the little more, Il poco piu, and which in reality distinguishes the original master-pieces at Rome from even the best copies of them. An example or two will sufficiently explain what is here meant; for as these exquisite turns are to be found, in some degree of beauty or other, all over the whole surface of the body and limbs: we may by taking any one part of a fine figure (though so small a one that only a few muscles are express'd in it) explain the manner in which so much beauty and grace has been given to them, as to convince a skilful artist, almost at sight, that it must have been the work of a master. I have chosen, for this purpose, a small piece of the body of a statue, fig. [76 T p. II], representing part of the left side under the arm, together with a little of the breast, (including a very particular muscle, which, from the likeness its edges bear to the teeth of a saw, is, if consider'd by itself, void of beauty) as most proper to the point in hand, because this its regular shape more peculiarly requires the skill of the artist to give it a little more variety than it generally has, even in nature.
- 19. First, then, I will give you a representation of this part of the body, from an anatomical figure [Fig. 77 T p. II], to show what a sameness there is in the shapes of all the teeth-like insertions of this muscle; and how regularly the fibres, which compose it, follow the almost parallel out-lines of the ribs they partly cover. From what has been said before of the use of the natural covering of the skin, &c. the next figure [78 T p. II] will easily be understood to mean so tame a representation of the same part of the body, that tho' the hard and stiff appearance of the edges of this muscle is taken off by that covering, yet enough of its regularity and sameness remains to render it disagreeable. Now as regularity and sameness, according to our doctrine, is want of elegance and true taste, we shall endeavour in the next place to show how this very part (in which the muscles take so very regular a form) may be brought to have as much variety as any other part of the body whatever. In order to this, though some alteration must be made in almost every part of it, yet it should be so inconsiderable in each, that no remarkable change may appear in the shape and situation of any. Thus, let the parts mark'd 1, 2, 3, 4, (which appear so exactly similar in shape, and parallel in situation in the muscular figure 77) and not much mended in fig. 78, be first varied in
- 20. their sizes, but not gradually from the uppermost to the lowest, as in fig. [79 T p. II], nor alternately one long and one short, as in fig. [80 T p. II], for in either of these cases there would still remain too great a formality. We should therefore endeavour, in the next place, to vary them every way in our power, without losing entirely the true idea of the parts themselves. Suppose them then to have changed their situations a little, and slip'd beside each other irregularly, (some how as is represented in fig. [81 T p. II], merely with regard to their situation) and the external appearance of the whole piece of the body, now under our consideration, will assume the more varied and pleasing form, represented in fig. 76, easily to be discern'd by comparing the three figures, 76, 77, 78, one with another; and it will as easily be seen, that were lines to be drawn, or wires to be bent, over these muscles, from one to the other, and so on to the adjoining parts; they would have a continued waving flow, let them pass in any direction whatever. The unskilful, in drawing these parts after the life, as their regularities are much more easily seen and copied than their fine variations, seldom fail of making them more regular and poor than they really appear even in a consumptive person. The difference will appear evident by comparing fig. 78, purposely drawn in this tasteless manner, with fig. 76. But will be more perfectly understood by examining this part in the Torso of Michael Angelo [Fig. 54 p. I], whence this figure was taken. Note, there are casts of a small copy of that famous trunk of a body to be had at almost every plaster-figure makers, wherein what has been here described may be sufficiently seen, not only in the part which figure 76 was taken from, but all over that curious piece of antiquity. I must here again press my reader to a particular attention to the windings of these superficial lines, even in their passing over every joint, what alterations soever may be made in the surface of the skin by the various bendings of the limbs: and tho' the space allow'd for it, just in the joints, be ever so small, and consequently the lines ever so short, the application of this principle of varying these lines, as far as their lengths will admit of, will be found to have its effect as gracefully as in the more lengthen'd muscles of the body. It should be observ'd in the fingers, where the joints are but short, and the tendons straight; and where beauty seems to submit, in some degree, to use, yet not so much but you trace in a full-grown taper finger, these little winding lines among the wrinkles, or in (what is more pretty because more simple) the dimples of the nuckles. As we always distinguish things best by seeing their reverse set in opposition with them; if fig. 82 T p. II, by the straightness of its lines, shews fig. 83 T p. II, to have some little taste in it, tho' it is so slightly sketch'd;
- 21. the difference will more evidently appear when you in like manner compare a straight coarse finger in common life with the taper dimpled one of a fine lady. There is an elegant degree of plumpness peculiar to the skin of the softer sex, that occasions these delicate dimplings in all their other joints, as well as these of the fingers; which so perfectly distinguishes them from those even of a graceful man; and which, assisted by the more soften'd shapes of the muscles underneath, presents to the eye all the varieties in the whole figure of the body, with gentler and fewer parts more sweetly connected together, and with such a fine simplicity as will always give the turn of the female frame, represented in the Venus [Fig. 13 p. I], the preference to that of the Apollo [Fig. 12 p. I]. Now whoever can conceive lines thus constantly flowing, and delicately varying over every part of the body even to the fingers ends, and will call to his remembrance what led us to this last description of what the Italians call, Il poco piu (the little more that is expected from the hand of a master) will, in my mind, want very little more than what his own observation on the works of art and nature will lead him to, to acquire a true idea of the word Taste, when applied to form; however inexplicable this word may hitherto have been imagined.
- 22. We have all along had recourse chiefly to the works of the ancients, not because the moderns have not produced some as excellent; but because the works of the former are more generally known: nor would we have it thought, that either of them have ever yet come up to the utmost beauty of nature. Who but a bigot, even to the antiques, will say that he has not seen faces and necks, hands and arms in living women, that even the Grecian Venus doth but coarsely imitate? And what sufficient reason can be given why the same may not be said of the rest of the body? CHAPTER XI. Of Proportion. If anyone should ask, what it is that constitutes a fine-proportion'd human figure? how ready and seemingly decisive is the common answer: a just symmetry and harmony of parts with respect to the whole. But as probably this vague answer took its rise from doctrines not belonging to form, or idle schemes built on them, I apprehend it will cease to be thought much to the purpose after a proper enquiry has been made. Preparatory to which, it becomes necessary in this place, to mention one reason more which may be added to those given in the introduction, for my having persuaded the reader to consider objects scoop'd out like thin shells; which is, that partly by this conception, he may be the better able to separate and keep asunder the two following general ideas, as we will call them, belonging to form; which are apt to coincide and mix with each other in the mind, and which it is necessary (for the sake of making each more fully and particularly clear) should be kept apart, and consider'd singly. First, the general ideas of what hath already been discussed in the foregoing chapters, which only comprehends the surface of form, viewing it in no other light than merely as being ornamental or not. Secondly, that general idea, now to be discussed, which we commonly have of form altogether, as arising chiefly from a fitness to some design'd purpose or use. Hitherto our main drift hath been to establish and illustrate the first idea only, by shewing, first the nature of variety, and then its effects on the mind; with the manner how such impressions are made by means of the different feelings given to the eye, from its movements in tracing and coursing[5] over surfaces of all kinds. [5] See Chapter V, page 25. The surface of a piece of ornament, that hath every turn in it that lines are capable of moving into, and at the same time no way applied, nor of any manner of use, but merely to entertain the eye, would be such an object as would answer to this first idea alone. The figure like a leaf, at the bottom of plate I, near to fig. 67, is something of this kind; it was taken from an ash-tree, and was a sort of Lusus naturæ, growing only like an excressence, but so beautiful in the lines of its shell-like windings, as would have been
- 23. above the power of a Gibbons to have equalled, even in its own materials; nor could the graver of an Edlinck, or Drevet, have done it justice on copper. Note, the present taste of ornaments seems to have been partly taken from productions of this sort, which are to be found about autumn among plants, particularly asparagus, when it is running to seed. I shall now endeavour to explain what is included in what I have called for distinction sake, the second general idea of form, in a much fuller manner than was done in Chapter I, of Fitness. And begin with observing, that though surfaces will unavoidably be still included, yet we must no longer confine ourselves to the particular notice of them as surfaces only, as we heretofore have done; we must now open our view to general, as well as particular bulk and solidity; and also look into what may have filled up, or given rise thereto, such as certain given quantities and dimensions of parts, for inclosing any substance, or for performing of motion, purchase, stedfastness, and other matters of use to living beings, which, I apprehend, at length, will bring us to a tolerable conception of the word proportion. As to these joint-sensations of bulk and motion, do we not at first sight almost, even without making trial, seem to feel when a leaver of any kind is too weak, or not long enough to make such or such a purchase? or when a spring is not sufficient? and don't we find by experience what weight, or dimension should be given, or taken away, on this or that account? if so, as the general as well as particular bulks of form, are made up of materials moulded together under mechanical directions, for some known purpose or other; how naturally, from these considerations, shall we fall into a judgment of fit proportion; which is one part of beauty to the mind tho' not always so to the eye. Our necessities have taught us to mould matter into various shapes, and to give them fit proportions for particular uses, as bottles, glasses, knives, dishes, &c. Hath not offence given rise to the form of the sword, and defence to that of the shield? And what else but proper fitness of parts hath fix'd the different dimensions of pistols, muskets, great guns, fowling- pieces and blunderbusses; which differences as to figure, may as properly be called the different characters of fire-arms, as the different shapes of men are called characters of men. We find also that the profuse variety of shapes, which present themselves from the whole animal creation, arise chiefly from the nice fitness of their parts, designed for accomplishing
- 24. the peculiar movements of each. And here I think will be the proper place to speak of a most curious difference between the living machines of nature, in respect of fitness, and such poor ones, in comparison with them, as men are only capable of making; by means of which distinction, I am in hopes of shewing what particularly constitutes the utmost beauty of proportion in the human figure. A clock, by the government's order, has been made, and another now making, by Mr. Harrison, for the keeping of true time at sea; which perhaps is one of the most exquisite movements ever made. Happy the ingenious contriver! although the form of the whole, or of every part of this curious machine, should be ever so confused, or displeasingly shaped to the eye; and although even its movements should be disagreeable to look at, provided it answers the end proposed. An ornamental composition was no part of his scheme, otherwise than as a pollish might be necessary. If ornaments are required to be added to mend its shape, care must be taken that they are no obstruction to the movement itself, and the more as they would be superfluous, as to the main design.—But in nature's machines, how wonderfully do we see beauty and use go hand in hand! Had a machine for this purpose been nature's work, the whole and every individual part would have had exquisite beauty of form without danger of destroying the exquisiteness of its motion, even as if ornament had been the sole aim; its movements too would have been graceful, without one superfluous tittle added for either of these lovely purposes.—Now this is that curious difference between the fitness of nature's machines (one of which is man) and those made by mortal hands: which distinction is to lead us to our main point proposed; I mean, to the shewing what constitutes the utmost beauty of proportion. There was brought from France some years ago, a little clock-work machine, with a duck's head and legs fixt to it, which was so contrived as to have some resemblance of that animal standing upon one foot, and stretching back its leg, turning its head, opening and shutting its bill, moving its wings, and shaking its tail; all of them the plainest and easiest directions in living movements: yet for the poorly performing of these few motions, this silly, but much extoll'd machine, being uncover'd, appeared a most complicated, confused, and disagreeable object: nor would its being covered with a skin closely adhering to its parts, as that of a real duck's doth, have much mended its figure; at best, a bag of hob-nails, broken hinges, and patten-rings, would have looked as well, unless by other means it had been stuffed out to bring it into form. Thus again you see, the more variety we pretend to give to our trifling movements, the more confused and unornamental the forms become; nay chance but seldom helps them.— How much the reverse are nature's! the greater the variety her movements have, the more beautiful are the parts that cause them. The finny race of animals, as they have fewer motions than other creatures, so are their forms less remarkable for beauty. It is also to be noted of every species, that the handsomest of each move best: birds of a clumsy make seldom fly well, nor do lumpy fish glide so well through the water as those of a neater make; and beasts of the most elegant form, always excel in speed; of this, the horse and greyhound are beautiful examples: and even among themselves, the most elegantly made seldom fail of being the swiftest. The war-horse is more equally made for strength than the race-horse, which surplus of power in the former, if suppos'd added to the latter, as it would throw more weight into improper parts for the business of mere speed, so of course it would lessen, in some degree,
- 25. that admirable quality, and partly destroy that delicate fitness of his make; but then a quality in movement, superior to that of speed, would be given to him by the addition, as he would be render'd thereby more fit to move with ease in such varied, or graceful directions, as are so delightful to the eye in the carriage of the fine manag'd war-horse; and as at the same time, something stately and graceful would be added to his figure, which before could only be said to have an elegant neatness. This noble creature stands foremost among brutes; and it is but consistent with nature's propriety, that the most useful animal in the brute- creation, should be thus signalized also for the most beauty. Yet, properly speaking, no living creatures are capable of moving in such truly varied and graceful directions, as the human species; and it would be needless to say how much superior in beauty their forms and textures likewise are. And surely also after what has been said relating to figure and motion, it is plain and evident that nature has thought fit to make beauty of proportion, and beauty of movement, necessary to each other: so that the observation before made on animals, will hold equally good with regard to man: i. e. that he who is most exquisitely well-proportion'd is most capable of exquisite movements, such as ease and grace in deportment, or in dancing. It may be a sort of collateral confirmation of what has been said of this method of nature's working, as well as otherwise worth our notice, that when any parts belonging to the human body are conceal'd, and not immediately concern'd in movement, all such ornamental shapes, as evidently appear in the muscles and bones[6], are totally neglected as unnecessary, for nature doth nothing in vain! this is plainly the case of the intestines, none of them having the least beauty, as to form, except the heart; which noble part, and indeed kind of first mover, is a simple and well-varied figure; conformable to which, some of the most elegant Roman urns and vases have been fashion'd. [6] See Chapter IX on Compositions with the Serpentine-line. Now, thus much being kept in remembrance, our next step will be to speak of, first, general measurements; such as the whole height of the body to its breadth, or the length of a limb to its thickness: and, secondly, of such appearances of dimensions as are too intricately varied to admit of a description by lines. The former will be confined to a very few straight lines, crossing each other, which will easily be understood by everyone; but the latter will require somewhat more attention, because it will extend to the precision of every modification, bound, or limit, of the human figure. To be somewhat more explicit. As to the first part, I shall begin with shewing what practicable sort of measuring may be used in order to produce the most proper variety in the proportions of the parts of any body. I say, practicable, because the vast variety of intricately situated parts, belonging to the human form, will not admit of measuring the distances of one part by another, by lines or points, beyond a certain degree or number, without great perplexity in the operation itself, or confusion to the imagination. For instance, say, a line representing one breadth and an half of the wrist, would be equal to the true breadth of the thickest part of the arm above the elbow; may it not then be ask'd, what part of the wrist is meant? for if you place a pair of calipers a little nearer or further from the hand, the distance of the points will differ, and so they will if they are moved close to the wrist all round, because it is flatter one way than the other; but suppose, for argument sake, one certain diameter should be fix'd upon; may it not again be ask'd, how is it to be apply'd, if to the flattest side of the arm or the roundest, and how far from the elbow, and must it be
- 26. when the arm is extended or when it is bent? for this also will make a sensible difference, because in the latter position, the muscle, call'd the biceps, in the front of that part of the arm, swells up like a ball one way, and narrows itself another; nay all the muscles shift their appearances in different movements, so that whatever may have been pretended by some authors, no exact mathematical measurements by lines, can be given for the true proportion of a human body. It comes then to this, that no longer than whilst we suppose all the lengths and breadths of the body, or limbs, to be as regular figures as cylinders, or as the leg, figure 68 in plate I, which is as round as a rolling-stone, are the measures of lengths to breadths practicable, or of any use to the knowledge of proportion: so that as all mathematical schemes are foreign to this purpose, we will endeavour to root them quite out of our way: therefore I must not omit taking notice, that Albert Durer, Lomazzo, (see two tasteless figures taken from their books of proportion [Fig. 55 p. I]) and some others, have not only puzzled mankind with a heap of minute unnecessary divisions, but also with a strange notion that those divisions are govern'd by the laws of music; which mistake they seem to have been led into, by having seen certain uniform and consonant divisions upon one string produce harmony to the ear, and by persuading themselves, that similar distances in lines belonging to form, would, in like manner, delight the eye. The very reverse of which has been shewn to be true, in Chapter III, on Uniformity. "The length of the foot," say they, "in respect to the breadth, makes a double suprabipartient, a diapason, and a diatesseron[7]:" which, in my opinion, would have been full as applicable to the ear, or to a plant, or to a tree, or any other form whatsoever; yet these sort of notions have so far prevail'd by time, that the words, harmony of parts, seem as applicable to form, as to music. [7] Note, these authors assure you, that this curious method of measuring, will produce beauty far beyond any nature doth afford. Lomazzo, recommends also another scheme, with a triangle, to correct the poverty of nature, as they express themselves. These nature-menders put one in mind of Gulliver's tailor at Laputa, who, having taken measure of him for a suit of clothes, with a rule, quadrant, and compasses, after a considerable time spent, brought them home ill-made. Notwithstanding the absurdity of the above schemes, such measures as are to be taken from antique statues, may be of some service to painters and sculptors, especially to young beginners, but nothing nigh of such use to them, as the measures, taken the same way, from ancient buildings, have been, and are, to architects and builders; because the latter have to do with little else but plain geometrical figures: which measures, however, serve only in copying what has been done before. The few measures I shall speak of, for the setting out the general dimensions of a figure, shall be taken by straight lines only, for the more easy conception of what may indeed be properly call'd, gaging the contents of the body, supposing it solid like a marble statue, as the wires were described to do [Fig. 2 p. I] in the introduction: by which plain method, clear
- 27. ideas may be acquir'd of what alone seem to me to require measuring, of what certain lengths to what breadths make the most eligible proportions in general. The most general dimensions of a body, or limbs, are lengths, breadths, or thicknesses: now the whole gentility of a figure, according to its character, depends upon the first proportioning these lines or wires (which are its measures) properly one to another; and the more varied these lines are, with respect to each other, the more may the future divisions be varied likewise, that are to be made on them; and of course the less varied these lines are, the parts influenced by them, as they must conform themselves to them, must have less variety too. For example, the exact cross [Fig. 69 R p. II] of two equal lines, cutting each other in the middle, would confine the figure of a man, drawn conformable to them, to the disagreeable character of his being as broad as he is long. And the two lines crossing each other, to make the height and breadth of a figure, will want variety a contrary way, by one line being very short in proportion to the other, and therefore, also incapable of producing a figure of tolerable variety. To prove this, it will be very easy for the reader to make the experiment, by drawing a figure or two (tho' ever so imperfectly) confin'd within such limits. There is a medium between these, proper for every character, which the eye will easily and accurately determine.
- 28. Thus, if the lines, fig. [70 R p. II], were to be the measure of the extreme length and breadth, set out either for the figure of a man or a vase, the eye soon sees the longest of these is not quite sufficiently so, in proportion to the other, for a genteel man; and yet it would make a vase too taper to be elegant; no rule or compasses would decide this matter either so quickly or so precisely as a good eye. It may be observed, that minute differences in great lengths, are of little or no consequence as to proportion, because they are not to be discerned; for a man is half an inch shorter when he goes to bed at night, than when he rises in the morning, without the possibility of its being perceived. In case of a wager the application of a rule or compasses may be necessary, but seldom on any other occasion. Thus much I apprehend is sufficient for the consideration of general lengths to breadths. Where, by the way, I apprehend I have plainly shewn, that there is no practicable rule, by lines, for minutely setting out proportions for the human body, and if there were, the eye alone must determine us in our choice of what is most pleasing to itself. Thus having dispatch'd general dimension, which we may say is almost as much of proportion, as is to be seen when we have our cloaths on: I shall in the second, and more extensive method proposed for considering it, set out in the familiar path of common observation, and appeal as I go on to our usual feeling, or joint-sensation, of figure and motion. Perhaps by mentioning two or three known instances it will be found that almost every one is farther advanced in the knowledge of this speculative part of proportion than he imagines; especially he who hath been used to observe naked figures doing bodily exercise, and more especially if he be any way interested in the success of them; and the better he is acquainted with the nature of the exercise itself, still the better judge he becomes of the figure that is to perform it. For this reason, no sooner are two boxers stript to fight, but even a butcher, thus skill'd, shews himself a considerable critic in proportion; and on this sort of judgment, often gives, or takes the odds, at bare sight only of the combatants. I have heard a blacksmith harangue like an anatomist, or sculptor, on the beauty of a boxer's figure, tho' not perhaps in the same terms; and I firmly believe, that one of our common proficients in the athletic art, would be able to instruct and direct the best sculptor living, (who hath not seen, or is wholly ignorant of this exercise) in what would give the statue of an English- boxer, a much better proportion, as to character, than is to be seen, even in the famous group of antique boxers, (or as some call them, Roman wrestlers) so much admired to this day. Indeed, as many parts of the body are so constantly kept cover'd, the proportion of the whole cannot be equally known; but as stockings are so close and thin a covering, every one judges of the different shapes and proportions of legs with great accuracy. The ladies always
- 29. speak skilfully of necks, hands, and arms; and often will point out such particular beauties or defects in their make, as might easily escape the observation of a man of science. Surely, such determinations could not be made and pronounced with such critical truth, if the eye were not capable of measuring or judging of thicknesses by lengths, with great preciseness. Nay more, in order to determine so nicely as they often do, it must also at the same time, trace with some skill those delicate windings upon the surface which have been described in page 64 and 65, which altogether may be observ'd to include the two general ideas mention'd at the beginning of this chapter. If so, certainly it is in the power of a man of science, with as observing an eye, to go still further, and conceive, with a very little turn of thought, many other necessary circumstances concerning proportion, as of what size and in what manner the bones help to make up the bulk, and support the other parts; as well as what certain weights or dimensions of muscles are proper (according to the principle of the steelyard) to move such or such a length of arm with this or that degree of swiftness or force. But though much of this matter, may be easily understood by common observation, assisted by science, still I fear it will be difficult to raise a very clear idea of what constitutes, or composes the utmost beauty of proportion; such as is seen in the Antinous; which is allowed to be the most perfect in this respect, of any of the antique statues; and tho' the lovely likewise seems to have been as much the sculptor's aim, as in the Venus; yet a manly strength in its proportion is equally express'd from head to foot in it. Let us try, however, and as this master-piece of art is so well known, we will set it up before us as a pattern, and endeavour to fabricate, or put together in the mind, such kind of parts as shall seem to build another figure like it. In doing which, we shall soon find that it is chiefly to be effected by means of the nice sensation we naturally have of what certain quantities or dimensions of parts, are fittest to produce the utmost strength for moving, or supporting great weights; and of what are most fit for the utmost light agility, as also for every degree, between these two extremes. He who hath best perfected his ideas of these matters by common observations, and by the assistance of arts relative thereto, will probably be most precisely just and clear, in conceiving the application of the various parts and dimensions, that will occur to him, in the
- 30. following descriptive manner of disposing of them, in order to form the idea of a fine- proportion'd figure. Having set up the Antinous as our pattern, we will suppose there were placed on one side of it, the unwieldy elephant-like figure of an Atlas, made up of such thick bones and muscles, as would best fit him for supporting a vast weight, according to his character of extreme heavy strength. And, on the other side, imagine the slim figure of a Mercury, every where neatly formed for the utmost light agility, with slender bones and taper muscles fit for his nimble bounding from the ground.—Both these figures must be supposed of equal height, and not exceeding six foot[8]. [8] If the scale of either of these proportions were to exceed six foot in the life, the quality of strength in one, and agility in the other, would gradually decrease, the larger the person grew. There are sufficient proofs of this, both from mechanical reasonings and common observation. Our extremes thus placed, now imagine the Atlas throwing off by degrees, certain portions of bone and muscle, proper for the attainment of light agility, as if aiming at the Mercury's airy form and quality, whilst on the other hand, see the Mercury augmenting his taper figure by equal degrees, and growing towards an Atlas in equal time, by receiving to the like places from whence they came, the very quantities that the other had been casting off, when, as they approach each other in weight, their forms of course may be imagined to grow more and more alike, till at a certain point of time, they meet in just similitude; which being an exact medium between the two extremes, we may thence conclude it to be the precise form of exact proportion, fittest for perfect active strength or graceful movement; such as the Antinous we proposed to imitate and figure in the mind[9]. [9] The jocky who knows to an ounce what flesh or bone in a horse is fittest for speed or strength, will as easily conceive the like process between the strongest dray-horse and the fleetest racer, and soon conclude, that the fine war-horse must be the medium between the two extremes. I am apprehensive that this part of my scheme, for explaining exact proportion, may not be thought so sufficiently determinate as could be wished: be this as it will, I must submit it to the reader, as my best resource in so difficult a case: and shall therefore beg leave to try to illustrate it a little more, by observing, that, in like manner, any two opposite colours in the rainbow, form a third between them, by thus imparting to each other their peculiar qualities; as for example, the brightest yellow, and the lively blue that is placed at some distance from it, visibly approach, and blend by interchangable degrees, and, as above, temper rather than destroy each other's vigour, till they meet in one firm compound; whence, at a certain point, the sight of what they were originally, is quite lost; but in their stead, a most pleasing green is found, which colour nature hath chose for the vestment of the earth, and with the beauty of which the eye is never tired. From the order of the ideas which the description of the above three figures may have raised in the mind, we may easily compose between them, various other proportions. And as the painter, by means of a certain order in the arrangement of the colours upon his pallet, readily mixes up what kind of tint he pleases, so may we mix up and compound in the imagination such fit parts as will be consistent with this or that particular character, or at least be able thereby to discover how such characters are composed, when we see them either in art or nature. But perhaps even the word character, as it relates to form, may not be quite understood by every one, tho' it is so frequently used: nor do I remember to have seen it explained any
- 31. where. Therefore on this account—and also as it will further shew the use of thinking of form and motion together, it will not be improper to observe,—that notwithstanding a character, in this sense, chiefly depends on a figure being remarkable as to its form, either in some particular part, or altogether; yet surely no figure, be it ever so singular, can be perfectly conceived as a character, till we find it connected with some remarkable circumstance or cause, for such particularity of appearance; for instance, a fat bloted person doth not call to mind the character of a Silenus, till we have joined the idea of voluptuousness with it; so likewise strength to support, and clumsiness of figure, are united, as well in the character of an Atlas as in a porter. When we consider the great weight chairmen often have to carry, do we not readily consent that there is a propriety and fitness in the tuscan order of their legs, by which they properly become characters as to figure? Watermen too, are of a distinct cast, or character, whose legs are no less remarkable for their smallness: for as there is naturally the greatest call for nutriment to the parts that are most exercised, so of course these that lye so much stretched out, are apt to dwindle, or not grow to their full size. There is scarcely a waterman that rows upon the Thames, whose figure doth not confirm this observation. Therefore were I to paint the character of a Charon, I would thus distinguish his make from that of a common man's; and, in spite of the word low, venture to give him a broad pair of shoulders, and spindle shanks, whether I had the authority of an antique statue, or basso-relievo, for it or not. May be, I cannot throw a stronger light on what has been hitherto said of proportion, than by animadverting on a remarkable beauty in the Apollo-belvedere; which hath given it the preference even to the Antinous: I mean a super-addition of greatness, to at least as much beauty and grace, as is found in the latter. These two master-pieces of art, are seen together in the same palace at Rome, where the Antinous fills the spectator with admiration only, whilst the Apollo strikes him with surprise, and, as travellers express themselves, with an appearance of something more than human; which they of course are always at a loss to describe: and this effect, they say, is the more astonishing, as upon examination its disproportion is evident even to a common eye. One of the best sculptors we have in England, who lately went to see them, confirm'd to me what has been now said, particularly as to the legs and thighs being too long, and too large for the upper parts. And Andrea Sacchi, one of the great Italian painters, seems to have been of the same opinion, or he would hardly have given his Apollo, crowning Pasquilini the musician, the exact proportion of the Antinous, (in a famous picture of his now in England) as otherwise it seems to be a direct copy from the Apollo. Although in very great works we often see an inferior part neglected, yet here it cannot be the case, because in a fine statue, just proportion is one of its essential beauties: therefore it stands to reason, that these limbs must have been lengthened on purpose, otherwise it might easily have been avoided. So that if we examine the beauties of this figure thoroughly, we may reasonably conclude, that what has been hitherto thought so unaccountably excellent in its general appearance, hath been owing to what hath seem'd a blemish in a part of it: but let us endeavour to make this matter as clear as possible, as it may add more force to what has been said. Statues by being bigger than life, (as this is one, and larger than the Antinous) always gain some nobleness in effect, according to the principle of quantity[10] but this alone is not
- 32. sufficient to give what is properly to be called, greatness in proportion; for were figures 17 and 18, in plate I, to be drawn or carved by a scale of ten feet high, they would still be but pigmy proportions, as, on the other hand, a figure of but two inches, may represent a gigantic height. [10] See Chapter VI. Therefore greatness of proportion must be considered, as depending on the application of quantity to those parts of the body where it can give more scope to its grace in movement, as to the neck for the larger and swan-like turns of the head, and to the legs and thighs, for the more ample sway of all the upper parts together. By which we find that the Antinous's being equally magnified to the Apollo's height, would not sufficiently produce that superiority of effect, as to greatness, so evidently seen in the latter. The additions necessary to the production of this greatness in proportion, as it there appears added to grace, must then be, by the proper application of them, to the parts mention'd only. I know not how further to prove this matter than by appealing to the reader's eye, and common observation, as before. The Antinous being allowed to have the justest proportion possible, let us see what addition, upon the principle of quantity, can be made to it, without taking away any of its beauty. If we imagine an addition of dimensions to the head, we shall immediately conceive it would only deform—if to the hands or feet, we are sensible of something gross and ungenteel,—if to the whole lengths of the arms, we feel they would be dangling and aukward—if by an addition of length or breadth to the body, we know it would appear heavy and clumsy— there remains then only the neck, with the legs and thighs to speak of; but, to these we find, that not only certain additions may be admitted without causing any disagreeable effect, but that thereby greatness, the last perfection as to proportion, is given to the human form; as is evidently express'd in the Apollo: and may still be further confirmed by examining the drawings of Parmigiano, where these particulars are seen in excess; yet on this account his works are said, by all true connoisseurs, to have an inexpressible greatness of taste in them, though otherwise very incorrect. Let us now return to the two general ideas we set out with at the beginning of this chapter, and recollect that under the first, on surface, I have shewn in what manner, and how far human proportion is measureable, by varying the contents of the body, conformable to the
- 33. given proportion of two lines. And that under the second and more extensive general idea of form, as arising from fitness for movement, &c. I have endeavour'd to explain, by every means I could devise, that every particular and minute dimension of the body, should conform to such purposes of movement, &c. as have been first properly considered and determined: on which conjunctively, the true proportion of every character must depend; and is found so to do, by our joint-sensation of bulk and motion. Which account of the proportion of the human body, however imperfect, may possibly stand its ground, till one more plausible shall be given. As the Apollo [Fig. 12 p. I] has been only mention'd on account of the greatness of its proportion, I think in justice to so fine a performance; and also as it is not foreign to the point we have been upon, we may subjoin an Observation or two on its perfections. Besides, what is commonly allow'd, if we consider it by the rules here given for constituting or composing character, it will discover the author's great sagacity, in choosing a proportion for this deity, which has served two noble purposes at once; in that these very dimensions which appear to have given it so much dignity, are the same that are best fitted to produce the utmost speed. And what could characterise the god of day, either so strongly or elegantly, to be expressive in a statue, as superior swiftness, and beauty dignify'd? and how poetically doth the action it is put into, carry on the allusion to speed,[11] as he is lightly stepping forward, and seeming to shoot his arrows from him; if the arrows may be allowed to signify the sun's rays? This at least may as well be supposed as the common surmise, that he is killing the dragon, Python; which certainly is very inconsistent with so erect an attitude, and benign an aspect[12]. [11]——the sun: which cometh forth as a bridegroom out of his chamber, and rejoiceth as a giant to run his course. Psalm xix. 5. [12] The accounts given, in relation to this statue, make it so highly probable that it was the great Apollo of Delphos, that, for my own part, I make no manner of doubt of its being so.
- 34. Nor are the inferior parts neglected: the drapery also that depends from his shoulders, and folds over his extended arm, hath its treble office. As first, it assists in keeping the general appearance within the boundary of a pyramid, which being inverted, is, for a single figure, rather more natural and genteel than one upon its basis. Secondly, it fills up the vacant angle under the arm, and takes off the straightness of the lines the arm necessarily makes with the body in such an action; and, lastly, spreading as it doth, in pleasing folds, it helps to satisfy the eye with a noble quantity in the composition altogether, without depriving the beholder of any part of the beauties of the naked: in short, this figure might serve, were a lecture to be read over it, to exemplify every principle that hath been hitherto advanced. We shall therefore close not only all we have to say on proportion with it, but our whole lineal account of form, except what we have particularly to offer as to the face; which it will be proper to defer, till we have spoken of light and shade and colour. As some of the ancient statues have been of such singular use to me, I shall beg leave to conclude this chapter with an observation or two on them in general. It is allowed by the most skilful in the imitative arts, that tho' there are many of the remains of antiquity, that have great excellencies about them; yet there are not, moderately speaking, above twenty that may be justly called capital. There is one reason, nevertheless, besides the blind veneration that generally is paid to antiquity, for holding even many very imperfect pieces in some degree of estimation: I mean that peculiar taste of elegance which so visibly runs through them all, down to the most incorrect of their basso-relievos: which taste, I am persuaded, my reader will now conceive to have been entirely owing to the perfect knowledge the ancients must have had of the use of the precise serpentine-line. But this cause of elegance not having been since sufficiently understood, no wonder such effects should have appear'd mysterious, and have drawn mankind into a sort of religious esteem, and even bigotry, to the works of antiquity. Nor have there been wanting of artful people, who have made good profit of those whose unbounded admiration hath run them into enthusiasm. Nay there are, I believe, some who still carry on a comfortable trade in such originals as have been so defaced and maimed by time, that it would be impossible, without a pair of double-ground connoisseur-spectacles, to see whether they have ever been good or bad: they deal also in cook'd-up copies, which they are very apt to put off for originals. And whoever dares be bold enough to detect such impositions, finds himself immediately branded, and given out as one of low ideas, ignorant of the true sublime, self-conceited, envious, &c. But as there are a great part of mankind that delight most in what they least understand; for ought I know, the emolument may be equal between the bubler and the bubled: at least this seems to have been Butler's opinion: Doubtless the pleasure is as great In being cheated, as to cheat. CHAPTER XII.
- 35. Of Light and Shade, and the manner in which objects are explained to the eye by them. Although both this and the next chapter may seem more particularly relative to the art of painting, than any of the foregoing; yet, as hitherto, I have endeavour'd to be understood by every reader, so here also I shall avoid, as much as the subject will permit, speaking of what would only be well-conceived by painters. There is such a subtile variety in the nature of appearances, that probably we shall not be able to gain much ground by this enquiry, unless we exert and apply the full use of every sense, that will convey to us any information concerning them. So far as we have already gone, the sense of feeling, as well as that of seeing, hath been apply'd to; so that perhaps a man born blind, may, by his better touch than is common to those who have their sight, together with the regular process that has been here given of lines, so feel out the nature of forms, as to make a tolerable judgment of what is beautiful to sight. Here again our other senses must assist us, notwithstanding in this chapter we shall be more confined to what is communicated to the eye by rays of light; and tho' things must now be consider'd as appearances only; produced and made out merely by means of lights, shades, and colours. By the various circumstances of which, every one knows we have represented on the flat surface of the looking-glass, pictures equal to the originals reflected by it. The painter too, by proper dispositions of lights, shades, and colours, on his canvas, will raise the like ideas. Even prints, by means of lights and shades alone, will perfectly inform the eye of every shape and distance whatsoever, in which even lines must be consider'd as narrow parts of shade, a number of them, drawn or engrav'd neatly side by side, called hatching, serve as shades in prints, and when they are artfully managed, are a kind of pleasing succedaneum to the delicacy of nature's. Could mezzo-tinto prints be wrought as accurately as those with the graver, they would come nearest to nature, because they are done without strokes or lines. I have often thought that a landskip, in the process of this way of representing it, doth a little resemble the first coming on of day. The copper-plate it is done upon, when the artist first takes it into hand, is wrought all over with an edg'd-tool, so as to make it print one even black, like night: and his whole work after this, is merely introducing the lights into it; which he does by scraping off the rough grain according to his design, artfully smoothing it most where light is most required: but as he proceeds in burnishing the lights, and clearing up the shades, he is obliged to take off frequent impressions to prove the progress of the work, so that each proof appears like the different times of a foggy morning, till one becomes so finish'd as to be distinct and clear enough to imitate a day-light piece. I have given this description because I think the whole operation, in the simplest manner, shews what lights and shades alone will do. As light must always be supposed, I need only speak of such privations of it as are called shades or shadows, wherein I shall endeavour to point out and regularly describe a certain order and arrangement in their appearance, in which order we may conceive different kinds of softnings and modulations of the rays of light which are said to fall upon the eye from
- 36. every object it sees, and to cause those more or less-pleasing vibrations of the optic nerves, which serve to inform the mind concerning every different shape or figure that presents itself. The best light for seeing the shadows of objects truly, is, that which comes in at a common sized window, where the sun doth not shine; I shall therefore speak of their order as seen by this kind of light: and shall take the liberty in the present and following chapter, to consider colours but as variegated shades, which together with common shades, will now be divided into two general parts or branches. The first we shall call prime tints, by which is meant any colour or colours on the surfaces of objects; and the use we shall make of these different hues will be to consider them as shades to one another. Thus gold is a shade to silver, &c. exclusive of those additional shades which may be made in any degree by the privation of light. The second branch may be called retiring shades, which gradate or go off by degrees, as figs. [84 and 85 T p. II]. These shades, as they vary more or less, produce beauty, whether they are occasioned by the privation of light, or made by the pencilings of art or nature. When I come to treat of colouring, I shall particularly shew in what manner the gradating of prime tints serve to the making a beautiful complexion; in this place we shall only observe how nature hath by these gradating shades ornamented the surfaces of animals; fish generally have this kind of shade from their backs downward; birds have their feathers enriched with it; and many flowers, particularly the rose, shew it by the gradually-increasing colours of their leaves. The sky always gradates one way or other, and the rising or setting sun exhibits it in great perfection, the imitating of which was Claud. de Loraine's peculiar excellence, and is now Mr. Lambert's: there is so much of what is called harmony to the eye to be produced by this shade, that I believe we may venture to say, in art it is the painter's gamut, which nature has sweetly pointed out to us in what we call the eyes of a peacock's tail: and the nicest needle-workers are taught to weave it into every flower and leaf, right or wrong, as if it was as constantly to be observed as it is seen in flames of fire; because it is always found to entertain the eye. There is a sort of needle-work called Irish-stitch, done in these shades only; which pleases still, tho' it has long been out of fashion. There is so strict an analogy between shade and sound, that they may well serve to illustrate each other's qualities: for as sounds gradually decreasing and increasing give the idea of progression from, or to the ear, just so do retiring shades shew progression, by figuring it to the eye. Thus, as by objects growing still fainter, we judge of distances in prospects, so by the decreasing noise of thunder, we form the idea of its moving further
- 37. from us. And with regard to their similitude in beauty, like as the gradating shade pleases the eye, so the increasing, or swelling note, delights the ear. I have call'd it the retiring shade, because by the successive, or continual change in its appearance, it is equally instrumental with converging lines[13], in shewing how much objects, or any parts of them, retire or recede from the eye; without which, a floor, or horizontal-plane, would often seem to stand upright like a wall. And notwithstanding all the other ways by which we learn to know at what distances things are from us, frequent deceptions happen to the eye on account of deficiencies in this shade: for if the light chances to be so disposed on objects as not to give this shade its true gradating appearance, not only spaces are confounded, but round things appear flat, and flat ones round. [13] See p. 17. The two converging lines from the ship, to the point C, under fig. 47, plate I. But although the retiring shade hath this property, when seen with converging lines, yet if it describes no particular form, as none of those do in fig. 94, on top of plate II, it can only appear as a flat-pencil'd shade; but being inclosed within some known boundary or out-line, such as may signify a wall, a road, a globe, or any other form in perspective where the parts retire, it will then shew its retiring quality: as for example, the retiring shade on the floor, in plate II, which gradates from the dog's feet to those of the dancer's, shews, that by this means a level appearance is given to the ground: so when a cube is put into true perspective on paper, with lines only, which do but barely hint the directions every face of it is meant to take, these shades make them seem to retire just as the perspective lines direct; thus mutually compleating the idea of those recessions which neither of them alone could do.
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