Pesticide mineralization in water using silver nanoparticles incorporated on polyurethane foam
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This document describes a study on using silver nanoparticles incorporated onto polyurethane foam to mineralize pesticides in water. Silver nanoparticles were synthesized using trisodium citrate and characterized before being incorporated onto polyurethane foam. The foam was then used to mineralize chlorpyrifos and malathion in water solutions at different concentrations over time. Mineralization time was found to increase with higher initial pesticide concentration, with chlorpyrifos being fully mineralized faster than malathion at the same concentrations. The study evaluated silver nanoparticles on polyurethane foam as a potential method for removing pesticides from contaminated water.
![International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064
Volume 1 Issue 3, December 2012
www.ijsr.net
Pesticide Mineralization in Water Using Silver
Nanoparticles Incorporated on Polyurethane Foam
G. Manimegalai1
, S. Shanthakumar2
, Chandan Sharma3
1
Environmental Engineering Division, School of Mechanical and Building Sciences,
VIT University, Vellore-632014, India
maniganesh87@gmail.com
2
Environmental Engineering Division, School of Mechanical and Building Sciences,
VIT University, Vellore-632014, India
sskumariit@gmail.com
3
Chemical Engineering Division, School of Mechanical and Building Sciences,
VIT University, Vellore-632014, India
chandan1816@gmail.com
Abstract: In present day scenario, pesticides are widely used for pest control in agriculture, because of which, the drinking water
sources (both surface and ground water) gets contaminated. Majority of the pesticides are defiant to biodegradation and are found to be
carcinogenic in nature even at trace levels. Various conventional methods employed for removal of pesticide are surface adsorption,
photo-catalysis, membrane separation and biodegradation. However, these methods have disadvantages such as time consumption and
expensive. Application of nanoparticles alleviates both of the above mentioned drawbacks. The nanoparticles need to be incorporated on
a support to prevent the presence of it in the purified water after mineralization of pesticides. Previous researchers employed activated
carbon and alumina as support for silver nanoparticles in pesticide mineralization. However, not many studies have been carried out on
polyurethane foam (PUF) as support for silver nanoparticles in the mineralization of pesticides (Chlorpyrifos & Malathion) in water.
Hence, a detailed study has been carried out to estimate the mineralization potential of silver nanoparticles supported on PUF. Silver
nanoparticles synthesized using trisodium citrate as reducing agent was used for incorporating into polyurethane foam. Polyurethane
foam was found to be having saturation for supporting AgNPs. The pesticide concentration found to be directly proportional to
mineralization time.
Keywords: Pesticide, Nanoparticles, Polyurethane foam, Mineralization
1. Introduction
Water pollution due to pesticides is a critical problem in
developing countries since they are deliberately used to
control pest in agriculture and public health and hold a
unique position among contaminants found in water[1].
Runoff from agricultural fields, industrial wastes and
orchards treated with pesticides are the various sources of
pesticides in water[2]. Pesticides comprise of different
classes such as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides,
rodenticides etc. and due to their widespread use, they leach
into surface and ground water and hence, present in drinking
water as well. They persist in the environment and pose a
significant health threat. Among the possible effects related
to this exposure, genetic damage has important health
implications for the induction of lung cancer, non-Hodgkin’s
lymphoma, pancreatic cancer, bladder cancer and
leukaemia[3-4].
The awareness about the risks associated with drinking water
contamination is increasing in the present scenario due to
which the allowable limits are being revised and the
permissible limits are expected to reach molecular levels in
the coming years. In spite of the negative perception of the
public, pesticides are still going to be utilised for many
decades to ensure the food supply for the ever growing
world population[5]. Hence, it becomes essential to develop
new technologies which are capable of removing pesticides
even at ppm or ppb levels.
Previously, the researchers employed various methods for
pesticide removal which includes photo-catalysis,
biodegradation, adsorption and membrane separation[2].
These methods are disadvantageous either due to their time
consumption or expensiveness. The applications of
nanotechnology are increasing in all areas of science and
technology, including the field of environmental studies
and treatment[6]. Nanoparticles are usually referred to as
clusters of atoms in the size range of 1-100 nm[7].
Nanoparticles exhibit a completely new or improved
properties compared to larger particles of bulk material and
these novel properties are derived due to the variation in
specific characteristics such as size, ionic state, distribution
and morphology of the particles. Nanoparticles exhibit a
higher surface area-to-volume ratio with decrease in the
size of particles[8]. It has been well established that the
metallic nanoparticles such as zero-valent iron, copper,
silver and gold have unique catalytic activity in the
mineralization of halocarbons and other organic as well as
inorganic contaminants.
Metal nanoparticles can be prepared by two routes such as
physical and chemical approach. Physical methods are
evaporation/condensation and laser ablation etc. chemical
methods can be subdivided into three types such as classical
chemicals using the well-known chemical reducing
91](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pesticidemineralizationinwaterusingsilvernanoparticlesincorporatedonpolyurethanefoam-181002080811/85/Pesticide-mineralization-in-water-using-silver-nanoparticles-incorporated-on-polyurethane-foam-1-320.jpg)
![International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064
Volume 1 Issue 3, December 2012
www.ijsr.net
substances (hydrazine, sodium borohydride, hydrogen etc.),
radiation chemicals where the reduction process is initiated
by solvated electrons generated by the ionized radiation
and green chemicals using naturally occurring reducing
agents such as polysaccharides, plant extract or culture
supernatant of bacteria and fungi[7].
However, not many studies have been carried out on
polyurethane foam (PUF) as support for silver nanoparticles
in the mineralization of pesticides in water. Hence, a
detailed study has been carried out to estimate the
mineralization potential of silver nanoparticles supported
on PUF and the critical evaluation of the results are
presented in this paper.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Chemicals and Reagents
Silver nitrate, diethyl amine, trisodium citrate, and hexane
were purchased from Thomas baker, India. All the reagents
used were of analytical reagent grade and were used as
received. Milli Q water was used for the synthesis of silver
nanoparticles and double distilled water was used for the
mineralization of pesticides. Commercially available
pesticides such as Chlorpyrifos and Malathion were
obtained from local pesticide shop. Polyurethane foam was
purchased from local store.
2.2 Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
200 mL of 5 mM silver nitrate was diluted into 1L in water
and was heated until it begins to boil. 40 mL of 1%
trisodium citrate solution was added and heated
continuously until the colour changed to pale yellow. The
solution was cooled to room temperature[9]. Aqueous
nanoparticles were coated as film on glass slides for atomic
force microscope (AFM) analysis.
2.3 Incorporation of AgNPs onto Polyurethane foam
Polyurethane foams were soaked in silver nanoparticles
solution overnight. For the saturated coating of 20 cm x 25
cm foam ~1.5 L of nanoparticles solution was required[10].
The sheets were washed repeatedly with water to remove
any adsorbed ions like citrate and were air dried.
2.4 Extraction of pesticide using hexane
After the treatment of pesticide contaminated water with
AgNPs, 75 mL of hexane was added to 500 mL of the
treated water. It was mixed well and kept for 30 minutes for
the separation into layers of hexane with pesticide and
water. The hexane with the extracted pesticide was kept out
for evaporation of hexane till the final volume was up to 3 –
4 mL. It was made up to 10 mL with hexane and used to
find out the absorbance value using UV-Visible
spectrophotometer[11].
2.5 Mineralization of Pesticide using Polyurethane
Foam (PUF) incorporated with AgNPs
Various required concentrations (1, 2 and 3 ppm) of
pesticide solutions were prepared. AgNPs incorporated
PUF (20 cm x 25 cm) was cut into pieces and immersed in
the prepared pesticide solution.
2.6 Pesticide Estimation
The estimation of Chlorpyrifos was done by measuring the
absorbance peak at 292 nm and for Malathion at 267
nm[11]. 3.5 mL aliquots of the solution were taken out at
equal time intervals (20 minutes) for analysis by UV-
Visible spectroscopy and the solutions were poured back
after measuring the absorbance. When the absorbance was
found to be negligible, the supports incorporated with
nanoparticles were taken out of the water. To confirm the
complete mineralization process, hexane was used to
extract even trace amounts of pesticide from the treated
water. 75 mL of hexane was required for each 500mL of
treated water.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles using trisodium
citrate as Reducing Agent
Fig. 1 shows the AFM image of silver nanoparticles. The
size of the nanoparticles is in the range of 60 – 90 nm.
Figure 1. AFM image of AgNPs (5x5µm2
)
3.2 Incorporation of Silver Nanoparticles onto
Polyurethane Foam
Fig. 2 depicts the image of Polyurethane foam before and
after the incorporation of nanoparticles. Optical
microscopic image of polyurethane foam Fig. 3 (before and
after incorporation of AgNPs) shows the detailed suface
area where nanoparticles get attached.
(a)
92](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pesticidemineralizationinwaterusingsilvernanoparticlesincorporatedonpolyurethanefoam-181002080811/85/Pesticide-mineralization-in-water-using-silver-nanoparticles-incorporated-on-polyurethane-foam-2-320.jpg)
![International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064
Volume 1 Issue 3, December 2012
www.ijsr.net
(b)
Figure 2. Polyurethane foam before (a) and after (b)
incorporation of AgNPs
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. Optical microscopic image of PUF before (a) and
after (b) incorporation of AgNPs
Due to the incorporation of nanoparticles, the white surface
of the polyurethane foam became yellow coloured.
3.3 Mineralization of Chlorpyrifos and Malathion using
AgNPs supported on PUF
It can be noted from Fig. 4 that the complete mineralization
time for 1 ppm, 2 ppm and 3 ppm Chlorpyrifos were found
to be 100 mins, 140 mins and 180 mins respectively.
Similarly, the mineralization time for 1 ppm, 2 ppm and 3
ppm Malathion were found to be 100 mins, 140 mins and
200 mins respectively (Fig.5).
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
Absorbance(A)
Time (min)
Conc. of
Chlorpyrifos
1ppm
2ppm
3ppm
Figure 4. Mineralization of Chlorpyrifos at different
concentrations using AgNPs supported on PUF
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
Absorbance(A)
Time (min)
Conc. of
Malathion
1ppm
2ppm
3ppm
Figure 5. Mineralization of Malathion at different
concentrations using AgNPs supported on PUF
4. Conclusion
Based on the results and discusssion, it has been
demonstrated that pesticide concentration influence the
mineralization time and it does not discriminate different
pesticides. Since the normal concentration of pesticide
contaminated drinking water sources are in the range of ppb
which is far lower than 1-3 ppm, the silver nanoparticles
supported on polyurethane foam can be used for the
removal of pesticides in the rural areas where the pesticide
contamination is prevalent.
References
[1] A. W. A. Brown, Ecology of Pesticides, John wiley &
sons, New York, 1977.
93](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pesticidemineralizationinwaterusingsilvernanoparticlesincorporatedonpolyurethanefoam-181002080811/85/Pesticide-mineralization-in-water-using-silver-nanoparticles-incorporated-on-polyurethane-foam-3-320.jpg)
![International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064
Volume 1 Issue 3, December 2012
www.ijsr.net
[2] N. Savage, M. D. J. Duncan, A. Street and R. Sustich,
Nanotechnology Applications for Clean Water, William
Andrew Inc, 2009.
[3] N. Itot, A. Hagiwara, S. Tamano, M. Futacuchis, K.
Imaidas and T. Shiraij, “Effects of Pesticide Mixtures at
the Acceptable Daily Intake Levels on Rat
Carcinogenesis,” Journal of Food and Chemical
Toxicology, 34, pp. 1091-1096, 1996.
[4] N. Sailaja, M. Chandrasekhar, P. V. Rekhadevi, M.
Mahbooba, M. F. Rahmana, S. B. Vuyyuri, K.
Danadevi, S. A. Hussain and P. Grover, “Genotoxic
evaluation of workers employed in pesticide
production,” Journal of MutationResearch.,609, pp. 74–
80, 2006.
[5] C. J. Wang and Z. Q. Liu, “Foliar uptake of pesticides-
Present status and future challenge Pesticide,” Journal of
Biochemistry and Physiology, 87, pp. 1–8, 2007.
[6] K. Watlington, Emerging Nanotechnologies for Site
Remediation and Wastewater Treatment, USEPA
Report, 2005.
[7] E. N. K. M. Abou, A. Eftaiha, A. Al-Warthan and R. A.
A. Ammar, “Synthesis and applications of silver
nanoparticles,” .Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 3, pp.
135–140, 2009.
[8] S. Gurunathana, K. Kalishwaralala, R. Vaidyanathana,
V. Deepaka, S. R. Pandiana, J. Muniyandia, N.
Hariharana and S. H. Eomb, “Biosynthesis, purification
and characterization of silver nanoparticles using
Escherichia coli,” Journal of Colloids and Surfaces B:
Biointerfaces, 74, pp. 328-335, 2009.
[9] P. V. Kamat, M. Flumiani and G. V. Hartland,
“Picosecond dynamics of silver nanoclusters. Light
induced fragmentation and photoejection of electrons,”
Journal of Physical Chemistry, B102, pp. 3123-3128,
1998.
[10] P. Jain and T. Pradeep, “Potential of Silver
Nanoparticle-coated Polyurethane Foam as an
antibacterial water filter,” Biotechnology and
Bioengineering, 90(1), pp. 59-63, 2005.
[11] S. Nair and T. Pradeep, “Extraction of Chlorpyrifos and
Malathion from Water by Metal Nanoparticles,”
.Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 7, pp.1-7,
2007.
94](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pesticidemineralizationinwaterusingsilvernanoparticlesincorporatedonpolyurethanefoam-181002080811/85/Pesticide-mineralization-in-water-using-silver-nanoparticles-incorporated-on-polyurethane-foam-4-320.jpg)
Pesticide mineralization in water using silver nanoparticles incorporated on polyurethane foam
- 1. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 Volume 1 Issue 3, December 2012 www.ijsr.net Pesticide Mineralization in Water Using Silver Nanoparticles Incorporated on Polyurethane Foam G. Manimegalai1 , S. Shanthakumar2 , Chandan Sharma3 1 Environmental Engineering Division, School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University, Vellore-632014, India [email protected] 2 Environmental Engineering Division, School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University, Vellore-632014, India [email protected] 3 Chemical Engineering Division, School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University, Vellore-632014, India [email protected] Abstract: In present day scenario, pesticides are widely used for pest control in agriculture, because of which, the drinking water sources (both surface and ground water) gets contaminated. Majority of the pesticides are defiant to biodegradation and are found to be carcinogenic in nature even at trace levels. Various conventional methods employed for removal of pesticide are surface adsorption, photo-catalysis, membrane separation and biodegradation. However, these methods have disadvantages such as time consumption and expensive. Application of nanoparticles alleviates both of the above mentioned drawbacks. The nanoparticles need to be incorporated on a support to prevent the presence of it in the purified water after mineralization of pesticides. Previous researchers employed activated carbon and alumina as support for silver nanoparticles in pesticide mineralization. However, not many studies have been carried out on polyurethane foam (PUF) as support for silver nanoparticles in the mineralization of pesticides (Chlorpyrifos & Malathion) in water. Hence, a detailed study has been carried out to estimate the mineralization potential of silver nanoparticles supported on PUF. Silver nanoparticles synthesized using trisodium citrate as reducing agent was used for incorporating into polyurethane foam. Polyurethane foam was found to be having saturation for supporting AgNPs. The pesticide concentration found to be directly proportional to mineralization time. Keywords: Pesticide, Nanoparticles, Polyurethane foam, Mineralization 1. Introduction Water pollution due to pesticides is a critical problem in developing countries since they are deliberately used to control pest in agriculture and public health and hold a unique position among contaminants found in water[1]. Runoff from agricultural fields, industrial wastes and orchards treated with pesticides are the various sources of pesticides in water[2]. Pesticides comprise of different classes such as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides etc. and due to their widespread use, they leach into surface and ground water and hence, present in drinking water as well. They persist in the environment and pose a significant health threat. Among the possible effects related to this exposure, genetic damage has important health implications for the induction of lung cancer, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, pancreatic cancer, bladder cancer and leukaemia[3-4]. The awareness about the risks associated with drinking water contamination is increasing in the present scenario due to which the allowable limits are being revised and the permissible limits are expected to reach molecular levels in the coming years. In spite of the negative perception of the public, pesticides are still going to be utilised for many decades to ensure the food supply for the ever growing world population[5]. Hence, it becomes essential to develop new technologies which are capable of removing pesticides even at ppm or ppb levels. Previously, the researchers employed various methods for pesticide removal which includes photo-catalysis, biodegradation, adsorption and membrane separation[2]. These methods are disadvantageous either due to their time consumption or expensiveness. The applications of nanotechnology are increasing in all areas of science and technology, including the field of environmental studies and treatment[6]. Nanoparticles are usually referred to as clusters of atoms in the size range of 1-100 nm[7]. Nanoparticles exhibit a completely new or improved properties compared to larger particles of bulk material and these novel properties are derived due to the variation in specific characteristics such as size, ionic state, distribution and morphology of the particles. Nanoparticles exhibit a higher surface area-to-volume ratio with decrease in the size of particles[8]. It has been well established that the metallic nanoparticles such as zero-valent iron, copper, silver and gold have unique catalytic activity in the mineralization of halocarbons and other organic as well as inorganic contaminants. Metal nanoparticles can be prepared by two routes such as physical and chemical approach. Physical methods are evaporation/condensation and laser ablation etc. chemical methods can be subdivided into three types such as classical chemicals using the well-known chemical reducing 91
- 2. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 Volume 1 Issue 3, December 2012 www.ijsr.net substances (hydrazine, sodium borohydride, hydrogen etc.), radiation chemicals where the reduction process is initiated by solvated electrons generated by the ionized radiation and green chemicals using naturally occurring reducing agents such as polysaccharides, plant extract or culture supernatant of bacteria and fungi[7]. However, not many studies have been carried out on polyurethane foam (PUF) as support for silver nanoparticles in the mineralization of pesticides in water. Hence, a detailed study has been carried out to estimate the mineralization potential of silver nanoparticles supported on PUF and the critical evaluation of the results are presented in this paper. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Chemicals and Reagents Silver nitrate, diethyl amine, trisodium citrate, and hexane were purchased from Thomas baker, India. All the reagents used were of analytical reagent grade and were used as received. Milli Q water was used for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles and double distilled water was used for the mineralization of pesticides. Commercially available pesticides such as Chlorpyrifos and Malathion were obtained from local pesticide shop. Polyurethane foam was purchased from local store. 2.2 Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles 200 mL of 5 mM silver nitrate was diluted into 1L in water and was heated until it begins to boil. 40 mL of 1% trisodium citrate solution was added and heated continuously until the colour changed to pale yellow. The solution was cooled to room temperature[9]. Aqueous nanoparticles were coated as film on glass slides for atomic force microscope (AFM) analysis. 2.3 Incorporation of AgNPs onto Polyurethane foam Polyurethane foams were soaked in silver nanoparticles solution overnight. For the saturated coating of 20 cm x 25 cm foam ~1.5 L of nanoparticles solution was required[10]. The sheets were washed repeatedly with water to remove any adsorbed ions like citrate and were air dried. 2.4 Extraction of pesticide using hexane After the treatment of pesticide contaminated water with AgNPs, 75 mL of hexane was added to 500 mL of the treated water. It was mixed well and kept for 30 minutes for the separation into layers of hexane with pesticide and water. The hexane with the extracted pesticide was kept out for evaporation of hexane till the final volume was up to 3 – 4 mL. It was made up to 10 mL with hexane and used to find out the absorbance value using UV-Visible spectrophotometer[11]. 2.5 Mineralization of Pesticide using Polyurethane Foam (PUF) incorporated with AgNPs Various required concentrations (1, 2 and 3 ppm) of pesticide solutions were prepared. AgNPs incorporated PUF (20 cm x 25 cm) was cut into pieces and immersed in the prepared pesticide solution. 2.6 Pesticide Estimation The estimation of Chlorpyrifos was done by measuring the absorbance peak at 292 nm and for Malathion at 267 nm[11]. 3.5 mL aliquots of the solution were taken out at equal time intervals (20 minutes) for analysis by UV- Visible spectroscopy and the solutions were poured back after measuring the absorbance. When the absorbance was found to be negligible, the supports incorporated with nanoparticles were taken out of the water. To confirm the complete mineralization process, hexane was used to extract even trace amounts of pesticide from the treated water. 75 mL of hexane was required for each 500mL of treated water. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles using trisodium citrate as Reducing Agent Fig. 1 shows the AFM image of silver nanoparticles. The size of the nanoparticles is in the range of 60 – 90 nm. Figure 1. AFM image of AgNPs (5x5µm2 ) 3.2 Incorporation of Silver Nanoparticles onto Polyurethane Foam Fig. 2 depicts the image of Polyurethane foam before and after the incorporation of nanoparticles. Optical microscopic image of polyurethane foam Fig. 3 (before and after incorporation of AgNPs) shows the detailed suface area where nanoparticles get attached. (a) 92
- 3. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 Volume 1 Issue 3, December 2012 www.ijsr.net (b) Figure 2. Polyurethane foam before (a) and after (b) incorporation of AgNPs (a) (b) Figure 3. Optical microscopic image of PUF before (a) and after (b) incorporation of AgNPs Due to the incorporation of nanoparticles, the white surface of the polyurethane foam became yellow coloured. 3.3 Mineralization of Chlorpyrifos and Malathion using AgNPs supported on PUF It can be noted from Fig. 4 that the complete mineralization time for 1 ppm, 2 ppm and 3 ppm Chlorpyrifos were found to be 100 mins, 140 mins and 180 mins respectively. Similarly, the mineralization time for 1 ppm, 2 ppm and 3 ppm Malathion were found to be 100 mins, 140 mins and 200 mins respectively (Fig.5). 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 Absorbance(A) Time (min) Conc. of Chlorpyrifos 1ppm 2ppm 3ppm Figure 4. Mineralization of Chlorpyrifos at different concentrations using AgNPs supported on PUF 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 Absorbance(A) Time (min) Conc. of Malathion 1ppm 2ppm 3ppm Figure 5. Mineralization of Malathion at different concentrations using AgNPs supported on PUF 4. Conclusion Based on the results and discusssion, it has been demonstrated that pesticide concentration influence the mineralization time and it does not discriminate different pesticides. Since the normal concentration of pesticide contaminated drinking water sources are in the range of ppb which is far lower than 1-3 ppm, the silver nanoparticles supported on polyurethane foam can be used for the removal of pesticides in the rural areas where the pesticide contamination is prevalent. References [1] A. W. A. Brown, Ecology of Pesticides, John wiley & sons, New York, 1977. 93
- 4. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 Volume 1 Issue 3, December 2012 www.ijsr.net [2] N. Savage, M. D. J. Duncan, A. Street and R. Sustich, Nanotechnology Applications for Clean Water, William Andrew Inc, 2009. [3] N. Itot, A. Hagiwara, S. Tamano, M. Futacuchis, K. Imaidas and T. Shiraij, “Effects of Pesticide Mixtures at the Acceptable Daily Intake Levels on Rat Carcinogenesis,” Journal of Food and Chemical Toxicology, 34, pp. 1091-1096, 1996. [4] N. Sailaja, M. Chandrasekhar, P. V. Rekhadevi, M. Mahbooba, M. F. Rahmana, S. B. Vuyyuri, K. Danadevi, S. A. Hussain and P. Grover, “Genotoxic evaluation of workers employed in pesticide production,” Journal of MutationResearch.,609, pp. 74– 80, 2006. [5] C. J. Wang and Z. Q. Liu, “Foliar uptake of pesticides- Present status and future challenge Pesticide,” Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 87, pp. 1–8, 2007. [6] K. Watlington, Emerging Nanotechnologies for Site Remediation and Wastewater Treatment, USEPA Report, 2005. [7] E. N. K. M. Abou, A. Eftaiha, A. Al-Warthan and R. A. A. Ammar, “Synthesis and applications of silver nanoparticles,” .Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 3, pp. 135–140, 2009. [8] S. Gurunathana, K. Kalishwaralala, R. Vaidyanathana, V. Deepaka, S. R. Pandiana, J. Muniyandia, N. Hariharana and S. H. Eomb, “Biosynthesis, purification and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Escherichia coli,” Journal of Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 74, pp. 328-335, 2009. [9] P. V. Kamat, M. Flumiani and G. V. Hartland, “Picosecond dynamics of silver nanoclusters. Light induced fragmentation and photoejection of electrons,” Journal of Physical Chemistry, B102, pp. 3123-3128, 1998. [10] P. Jain and T. Pradeep, “Potential of Silver Nanoparticle-coated Polyurethane Foam as an antibacterial water filter,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 90(1), pp. 59-63, 2005. [11] S. Nair and T. Pradeep, “Extraction of Chlorpyrifos and Malathion from Water by Metal Nanoparticles,” .Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 7, pp.1-7, 2007. 94