Programming Fundamentals - Lecture 1.ppt

Fundamentals of Programming
Lecture 1
Book by : Computer, Architecture and Organizations, 8th
Edition ,William Stalling
Original Slides by : Adrian J Pullin

Objectives
• Understand the different types of programming languages.
• Understand the basic procedures in a program as input,
processing and output.
• Understand the importance of variables.
• Understand a basic map of the program development cycle.

Computer Components
• CPU Central Processing Unit
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• Mass storage devices
• Input devices
• Output Devices

Software
•Application Software
– Word Processors
– Spreadsheets
– Painting programs
– Web browsers, email
programs
•System Software
– Operating Systems
• Windows
• Macintosh OS
• Unix
• Linux
– Drivers
Software is comprised of instructions that get a
computer to perform a task.

Programming Languages
• Programming languages allow programmers to code software.
• The three major families of languages are:
 Machine languages
 Assembly languages
 High-Level languages

Machine Languages
• Comprised of 1s and 0s
• The “native” language of a computer
• Difficult to program – one misplaced 1 or 0 will cause the
program to fail.
• Example of code:
1110100010101 111010101110
10111010110100 10100011110111

Assembly Languages
• A step towards easier programming.
• Comprised of a set of elemental commands
 tied to a specific processor.
• Assembly language code needs to be translated to machine
language before the computer processes it.
• Example:
ADD 1001010, 1011010

High-Level Languages
• High-level languages represent a giant leap towards easier
programming.
• The syntax of HL languages is similar to English.
• Historically, we divide HL languages into two groups:
 Procedural languages
 Object-Oriented languages (OOP)

Procedural Languages
• Procedural languages
 The focus of such languages is on sequence of activities to be
carried out.
 Based on specifying the steps the program must take to reach the
desired state.
 Examples include C, COBOL, Fortran, LISP, Perl, HTML, VBScript

Object-Oriented Languages
• Object-oriented languages:
 Focus on modeling data.
 Programmers code using “blueprints” of data models called classes.
 Examples of OOP languages include C++, Visual Basic.NET and
Java.

Compiling
• All HL programs need to be translated to machine code
 so that a computer can process the program.
• Programs may be translated using
 a compiler:
translated all at once
 An interpreter
translated line by line
• Compiled programs typically execute more quickly than interpreted
programs, but have a slower translation speed.
• On the other hand, interpreted programs generally translate
quicker than compiled programs, but have a slower execution
speed.

Programming Example
• Simple programming problem: Convert a length from feet
into meters.
• Pseudocode:
Input the length of an item, LengthInFeet, in feet and Compute
the length of the item in meters:
Write “Enter the length in feet”
Input LengthInFeet
Set LengthInMeters = LengthInFeet * .3048
Write LengthInMeters

Programming Example
 Partial Code in C:
 float LengthInFeet;
 LengthInMeters = LengthInFeet * .3048;
 printf (“%f”, LengthInMeters);

Input & Variables
• Input operations get data into the programs
• A user is prompted to enter data:
 Write “Enter the length in feet”
 Input LengthInFeet
• Computer programs store data in named sections of memory
called variables.
• In the example above, the variables are named LengthInFeet
& LengthInMeters.
 The value of a variable can, and often does, change throughout the
program.

Variables
• Needed because we might want the program to run using
different values:
 E.g. we might want to calculate LengthInMeters for different values of
LengthInFeet
 Each value for which computation is to be carried out will be stored in
the variable LengthInFeet one-by-one
 Referring to the variable LengthInFeet by its name gives the value
stored in it.

Constants
• Many a time we need to used fixed values for certain
computations.
• E.g. in the program given above
 the conversion from miles to meters requires the length in miles to be
multiplied by .3048
 a value that doesn’t (need to) change
 Such values are constants
• We may also give names to constants: such constants are
called named constants

Types of Data
• Numeric Data
 Integer data, I.e., whole numbers, 10 25 -45 0
 Floating point data – have a decimal point 23.0, -5.0
• Character data (alphanumeric)
 All the characters you can type at the keyboard
 Letters & numbers not used in calculations
• Boolean data
 TRUE/FALSE

Data Processing and Output
• LengthInMeters = .3048 * LengthInFeet
 The above statement is a processing statement.
 Take the value in the variable LengthInFeet,
 Multiply by .3048, and
 Set the value of the variable LengthInMeters to the result of the
multiplication.
Also stated as assign the result of multiplication to the variable
LengthInMeters
• Write LengthInMeters
 Output the value in LengthInMeters to the monitor.

Assignment Statements
• If the variable being assigned to already contains a data value,
 the previously stored value is overwritten
 E.g. the following statements:
Age= 12;
Age=15;
Have an effect of storing 15 in the variable Age.
 Reason: The value 12 (stored as an effect of the first assignment
statement) gets overwritten after the execution of the second
statement.

Assignment Statements
• The statement
 Age = Age + 1
 Changes the value of the variable Age in such a way
that the new value is one greater than the previous value.
• Working: Take the value of Age, add 1, and store the result
back in the same variable.

Operations on Data
• Operator is a symbol that is used to perform certain operations
• Data values on which operation is performed are termed as
operands
• Operators generally work on many types of variables or constants,
 though some are restricted to work on certain types.
 some may even exhibit different behaviors with different data
types
• Operators in C may be:
 Unary: Work on single operand
 Binary: Work on two operands
 Ternary: Work on three operands

Operators
• C, like most programming languages, supports operators to
carry out various kinds of operations
• We have operators for:
 Arithmetic operations
 Type Conversions
 Performing Comparisons
 Performing Logical Operations
 Working on individual bits of data
 And many more…

Precedence of Operators
• Operator precedence:
 A set of rules decide the order of operations in an expression
 Like BODMAS rule in mathematics
 Operator Precedence clarifies unambiguously, which operations
should be performed first in a given expression.
 Parentheses i.e. () can always be used to improve clarity

Associativity of Operators
• Operator Associativity:
• Rule used for two operators of equal precedence (i.e. same
importance)
• Associativity may be either of the following
 left to right: left operator is evaluated first
 right to left: right operator is evaluated first

Structured Programming
• A method for designing and coding programs in a systematic,
organized manner.

• It combines
 the principles of top-down design,
 modularity and
 the use of the three accepted control structures of
sequence,
repetition and
selection.

Control Structures
• Sequence –in sequential order.
 The simplest of control structures –
start at the beginning and continue in sequential order.
• Selection – selectively execute statements
 Called a branch,
 it requires a condition to determine when to execute statements.

Control Structures
 Repetition – repeat statements more than once
Called a loop,
It needs a stop condition,
I.e, the program will continue to loop (repeatedly
execute a set of statements) until some condition
is met.

Counter-Controlled Loop:
(Definite Repetition)
• If it is known in advance exactly how many times a loop
will execute, the repetition is said to be counter-
controlled
• Counter-controlled loop:
 Execute a set of statements repeatedly a specified number of
times
 The counter may be advanced according to programmers
requirements .

Event-Controlled Loop: (Indefinite Repetition)
• If it is NOT known in advance exactly how many times a
loop will execute, the loop is said to be event-controlled.
• An event-controlled loop
 Terminates when some event occurs.
 The event may be based upon:
User input
Results of calculation
And many more….

Steps in Developing a
Program
• Developing a Program:
1. Analyze the problem
2. Design the program
3. Code the program
4. Test the program

Step-1 Analyze the
Problem
 Brewster’s Thousands
 The problem: Brewster wants to invest money at a local bank. There
are many options such as interest rates, terms of deposit, compounding
frequencies. He needs a program to compute, for any given initial
investment, the final maturity (value) of the deposit.
What are the inputs? (given data)
What are the outputs? (required data)
How will we calculate the required outputs from the given inputs?

Step-2 Design the
Program
• Create an outline of the program
• An algorithm – a step by step procedure that will provide the required
results from the given inputs.
• Algorithm Examples: Instructions on how to make a cake, use the bank’s
ATM, etc.

Step-3 Code the
Program
• Once the design is completed, write the program code.
• Code is written in some programming language such as BASIC, Pascal,
C++, Java, etc.

Errors in Development
• While writing a program, certain errors may get induced in the
code.
• Errors may be categorized as :
 Syntactical Errors – Incorrect Syntax (wrong grammar), i.e.,
breaking the rules of how to write the language
Forgetting punctuation, misspelling keyword
The program will not run at all with syntax errors
 Semantic Errors: Incorrect Logic:
Using an incorrect formula, incorrect sequence of
statements, etc.
The program runs, but does not produce the expected
results.

Step-4 Testing the
program
• Purpose: Locate any errors (bugs) / problems
• Most of the work should be done before the phase begins – creating of
a testing document – telling what to test & how.
• Two types of testing:
 Testing for errors
 Quality testing
• Testing is done throughout the development cycle
• Desk-checking, or code walkthrough is performed to locate errors in
the code.
 Pretend you are the computer and execute your own code.
• Ultimate test is to run the program to see if the outputs are correct for
the given inputs.

Good Programming Practice
• It is best not to take the “big bang” approach to coding.
• Use an incremental approach by writing your code in
incomplete, yet working, pieces.
• For example, for your projects,
 Don’t write the whole program at once.
 Just write enough to display the user prompt on the screen.
 Get that part working first (compile and run).
 Next, write the part that gets the value from the user, and then just
print it out.

Modular Programming
• Determine the major tasks that the program must accomplish.
 Each of these tasks will be a module.
• Some modules will be complex themselves, and they will be broken into
sub-modules,
 and those sub-modules may also be broken into even smaller
modules.
• This is called top-down design

Code Modules
• A module is an independent, self-contained section of code
that performs a single task.
• The main module is the module that drives the application.
 It “controls” all other modules.
 Typically, the main module calls other modules in order to have them
perform certain tasks.

Program Control & Modules
• When the main module calls another module,
program control transfers to the called module.
• Program control cedes back to the main module
when the called module finishes.

Structure Chart
• A structure chart shows what modules exist and how they are
related.
• A structure chart is a top-down modular design tool
• It is used in structured programming to arrange program
modules into a tree
• It’s a good idea to keep modules short – about 1 page per
module.
• We will have very small modules while getting comfortable with
programming.

Documentation
• Internal Documentation
 Comments explain to the reader the logic and decision processes of
the programmer.
 Comments are ignored by an interpreter or compiler.
• External Documentation
 External documentation includes a user’s guide and, typically, a more
technical system administrator’s guide.

Objectives
• History of C
• Characteristics of C
• Converting a C Program to Executable
• Dissecting a simple C Program
• Defining Variables in C
• Printing Out and Inputting Variables
• Constants & Literals

History of C
• Developed by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie of
AT&T Bell Labs in 1972
• In 1983 the American National Standards Institute began
the standardization process
• In 1989 the International Standards Organization
continued the standardization process
• In 1990 a standard was finalized, known simply as
“Standard C”

Features of C
• C can be thought of as a “high level assembler”
• Most popular programming language for writing system
software
• Focus on the procedural programming paradigm, with
facilities for programming in a structured style
• Low-level unchecked access to computer memory via the
use of pointers
• And many more…

Writing C Programs
• A programmer uses a text editor to create or modify files
containing C code.
• Code is also known as source code.
• A file containing source code is called a source file.
• After a C source file has been created, the programmer
must invoke the C compiler before the program can be
executed (run)

Getting an executable
program
• The process of conversion from source code to machine
executable code is a multi step process.
• If there are no errors in the source code, the processes called
compilation & linking produce an executable file
• To execute the program, at the prompt, type
<executable file name>

Conversion from .C to executable
1. Preprocessing
2. Compilation
3. Linking

Stage 1:
Preprocessing
 Performed by a program called the preprocessor
 Modifies the source code (in RAM) according to preprocessor
directives (preprocessor commands) embedded in the source
code
 Strips comments and white space from the code
 The source code as stored on disk is not modified

Stage 2: Compilation
 Performed by a program called the compiler.
 Checks for syntax errors and warnings
 Translates the preprocessor-modified source code into object
code (machine code).
 Saves the object code to a disk file
 If any compiler errors are received, no object code file will be
generated.
 An object code file will be generated if only warnings, not
errors, are received.

Stage 3: Linking
• Combines the program object code with other object code to
produce the executable file.
• The other object code can come from the
– Run-Time Library
– other libraries
– or object files that you have created.
• Saves the executable code to a disk file.
• If any linker errors are received, no executable file is
generated.

Developing a C Program
Modified Source Code in RAM
Source File pgm.c
Program Object Code File
Executable File
Preprocessor
Compiler
Linker
Editor

A Simple C Program
/* Filename: hello.c
Author: --------
Date written: --/--/----
Description: This program prints the greeting
“Hello, World!”
*/
#include <stdio.h>
int main ( void )
{
printf ( “Hello, World!n” ) ;
return 0 ;
}

Structure of a C Program
program header comment
preprocessor directives (if any)
int main ( )
{
statement(s)
return 0 ;
}

Explanation
#include <stdio.h> /* comment */
int main(void)
{
printf("Hellon");
printf("Welcome to the Course!n");
return 0;
}
Hello
Welcome to the Course!
tells compiler about standard input and output functions (i.e. printf + others)
main function
“begin”
“end”
flag success
to operating
system

Tokens
• The smallest element in the C language is the token.
• It may be a single character or a sequence of characters to form
a single item.

Tokens can be any of:
• Numeric Literals
• Character Literals
• String Literals
• Keywords
• Names (identifiers)
• Punctuation
• Operators

Numeric Literals
• Numeric literals are an uninterrupted sequence of
digits
• May contain
 A period,
 A leading + or – sign
 A scientific format number
 A character to indicate data type
• Examples:
 123
 98.6
 1000000

Character Literals
• Singular!
• One character defined character set.
• Surrounded on the single quotation mark.
• Examples:
 ‘A’
 ‘a’
 ‘$’
 ‘4’

String Literals
• A sequence characters surrounded by double quotation
marks.
• Considered a single item.
• Examples:
 “UMBC”
 “I like ice cream.”
 “123”
 “CAR”
 “car”

Keywords
• Sometimes called reserved words.
• Are defined as a part of the C language.
• Can not be used for anything else!
• Examples:
 int
 while
 for

Reserved Words (Keywords) in C
• auto
• case
• const
• default
• double
• enum
• float
• goto
• int
• register
• short
• sizeof
• struct
• typedef
• unsigned
• volatile
• break
• char
• continue
• do
• else
• extern
• for
• if
• long
• return
• signed
• static
• switch
• union
• void
• while
All the C keywords are in small case

Names / Identifiers
• Variables must be declared before use and immediately
after “{”
• Can be of anything length, but only the first 31 are
significant (A very long name is as bad as a very short, un-
descriptive name).
• Are case sensitive: abc is different from ABC
• Must begin with a letter and the rest can be letters, digits,
and underscores.
• Cannot be a reserved word.

Which Are Legal Identifiers?
AREA area_under_the_curve
3D num45
Last-Chance #values
x_yt3 pi
num$ %done
lucky*** continue
Float integer

Punctuation
• Semicolons, colons, commas, apostrophes,
quotation marks, brackets, and parentheses.
• ; : , ‘ “ { } ( )

Things to remember
• Statements are terminated with semicolons
• Indentation is ignored by the compiler
• C is case sensitive - all keywords and Standard Library functions are
lowercase

Topics
• Variables
 Naming
 Declaring
 Using
• The Assignment Statement
• Constants
• Data Input & Output

Naming Conventions
• Begin variable names with lowercase letters
• Use meaningful names
• Separate “words” within identifiers with underscores or mixed upper and
lower case.
• Use all uppercase for symbolic constants (used in #define
preprocessor directives).
• Be consistent!
 In addition to the conventions one must follow all the naming rules
as discussed in previous sessions.
Note: symbolic constants are not variables,
but make the program easier to read.

Declaring Variables
• All variables need to be declared before they are used.
• The declaration statement includes (apart from other
information) the data type of the variable.
• Examples of variable declarations:
 int meatballs ;
 float area ;

It is required to declare variables before using
as compiler needs this information
Purpose!!!
Declaring Variables
 When we declare a variable
 Space is set aside in memory to hold a value of the specified
data type
 That space is associated with
the variable name
a unique address
 Visualization of the declaration
int age ; age
FE07 int
garbage

More About Variables
 Basic data types available in C are:
 char: stores single character
 int: stores whole numbers
 float: store floating point numbers
 double: store floating point numbers with higher precision

Integer Types in C
• C supports different kinds of integers, like
 signed int
 unsigned int
 long int
 short int
 And more…
• Limits depend upon size in bytes which in turn depends
upon environment
 maxima and minima defined in “limits.h”
• We can work with different bases as well (octal,
hexadecimal).

The int Data Type (Contd.)
 Use
 scanf (“%i”, &ch) ;
 to read a single integer into the variable ch.
 Use
 printf(“%i”, ch) ;
 to display the value of an integer variable.

The char Data Type
• The char data type holds a single character.
 char ch;
• Example assignments:
 char grade, symbol;
 grade = ‘B’;
 symbol = ‘$’;
• The char is held as a one-byte integer in memory. The
ASCII code is what is actually stored, so we can use
them as characters or integers, depending on our need.

The char Data Type (Contd.)
 Use
 scanf (“%c”, &ch) ;
 to read a single character into the variable ch.
 Use
 printf(“%c”, ch) ;
 to display the value of a character variable.

char I/O
 #include <stdio.h>
 int main ( )
 {
 char ch ;
 printf (“Enter a character: “) ;
 scanf (“%c”, &ch) ;
 printf (“The value of %cn.”, ch) ;
 return 0 ;
 }
Input: A
Output : The value of A is 65.

Real Types In C
 C supports different kinds of reals
 maxima and minima are defined in “float.h”
type format minimum maximum
float %f %e %g FLT_MIN FLT_MAX
double %lf %le %lg DBL_MIN DBL_MAX
long double %Lf %Le %Lg LDBL_MIN LDBL_MAX

Notes About Variables
• You must not use a variable until you somehow give it a
value.
• You can not assume that the variable will have a value
before you give it one.
 Some compilers do, others do not! This is the source of many
errors that are difficult to find.

Arithmetic Operators and
their Usage
Name Operator Example
Addition + num1 + num2
Subtraction - initial - spent
Multiplication * fathoms * 6
Quotient of Division / sum / count
Remainder of Division % m % n
% can not be used with reals

Relational Operators
< less than
> greater than
<= less than or equal to
>= greater than or equal to
== is equal to
!= is not equal to
 Relational expressions evaluate to the integer values:
 1 (true) on success
 0 (false) on failure

Logical Operators
• At times we need to test multiple conditions in order to
make a decision.
• Logical operators combine simple conditions to make
complex conditions.
• Result into a 0 (false) or 1 (true)
 && AND if ( x > 5 && y < 6 )
 || OR if ( z == 0 || x > 10 )
 ! NOT if (! (age > 42) )

Truth Table for &&
Expression1 Expression2 Expression1 && Expression2
 0 0 0
 0 nonzero 0
 nonzero 0 0
 nonzero nonzero 1
Exp1 && Exp2 && … && Expn will evaluate to 1 (true) only
if ALL sub-conditions are true.

Truth Table for ||
Expression1 Expression2 Expression1 || Expression2
 0 0 0
 0 nonzero 1
 nonzero 0 1
 nonzero nonzero 1
Exp1 || Exp2 || … || Expn will evaluate to 1 (true) if any one of
the sub-conditions is true.

Truth Table for !
 Expression ! Expression
 0 1
 nonzero 0

Precedence/Associativity
Table
Operator Associativity
() [] -> . left to right
! ~ ++ -- - + (cast) * & sizeof right to left
* / % left to right
+ - left to right
<< >> left to right
< <= >= > left to right
== != left to right
& left to right
| left to right
^ left to right
&& left to right
|| left to right
?: right to left
= += -= *= /= %= etc right to left
, left to right
+ - : unary

Functions
• Functions are named code blocks that make reusability of
code possible.
• These are parts of programs that
 Perform a well defined task.
 At times, expect some information in order to complete the task.
 The information is provided in form of parameters (arguments)
 Can return a value to convey result / status of execution

I/O Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int a, b;
printf("Enter two numbers: ");
scanf("%i %i", &a, &b);
printf("%i - %i = %in", a, b, a - b);
return 0;
}
create two integer
variables, “a” and “b”
read two integer
numbers into “a”
and “b”
write “a”, “b” and “a-b”
in the format specified
Enter two numbers: 21 17
21 - 17 = 4

Displaying Variables
• A Function that allows us to display formatted data:
 printf( ).
• Needs two pieces of information to display things.
 How to display it
 What to display
• printf( “%fn”, diameter );

printf( “%fn”, diameter );
• The name of the function is “printf”.
• Inside the parentheses are two comma separated
parameters:
 Format specifier: indicates the format in which the output will be
produced
%f => a floating point value
n => a new-line character (escape
sequence)
 The expression diameter whose value is to be displayed.

scanf (“%f”, &meters) ;
• This function is used to
 read values from the standard input; and
 Store them in memory.
• The scanf( ) function also needs two items:
 The input specification “%f”.
 The address of the memory location where the information
is to be stored.
• We can input more than one item at a time if we wish, as long
as we specify it correctly!!!
• Notice the “&” in front of the variable name. Can you
explain its significance!

Format Specifiers
• Format specifiers are normal strings with embedded
“conversion specifications” which are placeholders for
arguments
• Conversion specifications are a ‘%’ and a letter with an
optional set of arguments in between the ‘%’ and letter.
Why are these required!!!

Selection: the if statement
if ( condition )
{
statement(s) /* body of the if statement */
}
• The braces are not required if the body contains only a single
statement.
• However, they are a good idea and are required by the C Coding
Standards.

Examples
 if ( age >= 18 )
 {
 printf(“Vote!n”) ;
 }
if ( value == 0 )
{
printf (“The value you entered was zero.n”);
printf (“Please try again.n”) ;
}

Some Control Constructs in C

Selection: the if-else
statement
if ( condition )
{
statement(s) /* the if clause */
}
else
{
statement(s) /* the else clause
*/
}

Example
 if ( age >= 18 )
 {
 printf(“Vote!n”) ;
 }
 else
 {
 printf(“Maybe next time!n”) ;
 }

Repetition Structure
• There are three repetition structures in C: -
 the while loop
 the for loop
 the do-while loop.
• Either of these structures may be used for counter-controlled /
event-controlled logic, but
• The syntax of for loop makes it more suitable for counter-
controlled repetition
• And, The syntax of while / do-while loops makes them more
suitable for event-controlled repetition

The while Repetition
Structure
 while ( condition )
 {
 statement(s)
 }
• The braces are not required if the loop body contains
only a single statement.
• However, they are a good idea and are required by
the C Coding Standards.

while Loop
• The simplest C loop is the while
• Parentheses must surround the condition
• Condition could be based on user input or some calculation
• Braces must be added if more statements are to be executed
total= 0;
while (number != -1) {
total = total + number;
printf(“Enter another number: “) ;
scanf(“%d”, &number) ;
}

The for Loop
• The for loop handles details of the counter-controlled loop
“automatically”.
• The following are handled within the for loop structure
 initialization of the the loop control variable,
 the termination condition test, and
 control variable modification.
 for ( i = 1; i < 101; i = i + 1)
 {

 }
 initialization test modification

A for Loop That Counts
From 0 to 9
 for ( i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 1 )
 {
 printf (“%dn”, i) ;
 }

We Can Count Backwards,
Too
 for ( i = 9; i >= 0; i = i - 1 )
 {
 }

Count By 2’s or 7’s or
Whatever
 for ( i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 2 )
 {
 }

The do-while
do
{
 statement(s)
} while ( condition ) ;
• The body of a do-while is ALWAYS executed at least once.
• Is this true of a while loop?
• What about a for loop?

Example
 do
 {
 printf (“Enter a number, 0 to terminate:
“);
 scanf (“%d”, &number) ;
 if (number == 1)
 printf (“n Do Somethingn”) ;
 else if (number == 2)
 printf (“n Do Something Elsen”) ;
 } while ( num != 0 );

An Equivalent while Loop
 printf (“Enter a number, 0 to terminate:“) ;
 while ( number != 0 )
 {
printf (“Enter a number , 0 to terminate:“) ;
scanf (“%d”, &number) ;
 }
Notice that using a while loop in this case requires a priming
read.

An Equivalent for Loop
 printf (“Enter a positive number, 0 to terminate: “)
;
 for ( ; number != 0; )
 {
printf (“Enter a number , 0 to terminate:“) ;
scanf (“%d”, &number) ;
 }
A for loop is a very awkward choice here because the
loop is event-controlled.

So, Which Type of Loop Should One Use?
• Use a for loop for counter-controlled repetition.
• Use a while or do-while loop for event-controlled
repetition.
 Use a do-while loop when the loop must execute at least one
time.
 Use a while loop when it is possible that the loop may never
execute.

 That’s all for now…
 We are ready for writing a simple C program.

Programming Fundamentals - Lecture 1.ppt

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Programming Fundamentals - Lecture 1.ppt