Programming in Arduino (Part 2)

Programming in
Arduino
PART 2
BY: NIKET CHANDRAWANSHI
HTTP://WWW.NIKETCHANDRAWANSHI.ME/

Control Statements
Decision making structures
require that the programmer
specify one or more conditions
to be evaluated or tested by
the program. It should be along
with a statement or statements
to be executed if the condition
is determined to be true, and
optionally, other statements to
be executed if the condition is
determined to be false.
• If statement
• If …else statement
• If…else if …else statement
• switch case statement
• Conditional Operator ? :

if statement
It takes an expression in
parenthesis and a statement or
block of statements. If the
expression is true then the
statement or block of statements
gets executed otherwise these
statements are skipped.

if statement (example)
/* Global variable definition */ int A = 5 ; int B= 9 ;
Void setup ()
{
}
Void loop () {
/* check the boolean condition */
if (A > B) /* if condition is true then execute the following statement*/ A++;
If ( ( A>B ) && ( B!=0 )) /* if condition is true then execute the following statement*/
{ A+=B;
B--;
}
}

If …else statement
/* Global variable definition */ int A = 5 ; int B= 9 ;
Void setup ()
{
}
Void loop ()
{
if (A > B) /* if condition is true then execute the following statement*/
{
A++; } else {
B -= A;
} }

if…else if …else statement
The if statement can be followed by an optional else
if...else statement, which is very useful to test various
conditions using single if...else if statement.
When using if...else if…else statements, keep in
mind −
•An if can have zero or one else statement and it must come
after any else if's.
•An if can have zero to many else if statements and they must
come before the else.
•Once an else if succeeds, none of the remaining else if or
else statements will be tested.

if…else if …else statement (example)
/* Global variable definition */ int A = 5 ; int B= 9 ; int c=15;
Void setup ()
{
}
Void loop ()
{
if (A > B) /* if condition is true then execute the following statement*/
{
A++;
}
else if ((A==B )||( B < c) ) /* if condition is true then execute the following
statement*/
{
C =B* A;
} else c++;
}

Switch Case Statement
Similar to the if statements, switch...case controls
the flow of programs by allowing the programmers
to specify different codes that should be executed in
various conditions. In particular, a switch statement
compares the value of a variable to the values
specified in the case statements. When a case
statement is found whose value matches that of the
variable, the code in that case statement is run.
The break keyword makes the switch statement exit,
and is typically used at the end of each case. Without
a break statement, the switch statement will
continue executing the following expressions
("falling-through") until a break, or the end of the
switch statement is reached.
switch (variable)
{ case label: // statements break;
} case label:
{
// statements break; } default:
{
// statements break;
}
}

Switch Case Statement Syntax
switch (phase)
{
case 0: Lo(); break;
case 1: Mid(); break;
case 2: Hi(); break;
default:
Message("Invalid
state!");
Here is a simple example with switch.
Suppose we have a variable phase
with only 3 different states (0, 1, or
2) and a corresponding function
(event) for each of these states. This
is how we could switch the code to
the appropriate routine:

Loops
Programming languages provide various
control structures that allow for more
complicated execution paths. A loop
statement allows us to execute a
statement or group of statements
multiple times and following is the general
form of a loop statement in most of the
programming languages –
C programming language provides the
following types of loops to handle looping
requirements.
• while loop
• do…while loop
• for loop
• nested loop
• infinite loop

while loop
while loops will loop continuously, and
infinitely, until the expression inside the
parenthesis, () becomes false. Something
must change the tested variable, or the
while loop will never exit.

do…while loop
The do…while loop is similar to the while
loop. In the while loop, the loop-
continuation condition is tested at the
beginning of the loop before performed
the body of the loop. The do…while
statement tests the loop-continuation
condition after performed the loop body.
Therefore, the loop body will be executed
at least once. When a do…while
terminates, execution continues with the
statement after the while clause. It is not
necessary to use braces in the do…while
statement if there is only one statement in
the body. However, the braces are usually
included to avoid confusion between the
while and do…while statements.
do{
Block of statements;
} while (expression);

for loop
A for loop executes statements a
predetermined number of times. The
control expression for the loop is
initialized, tested and manipulated entirely
within the for loop parentheses. It is easy
to debug the looping behavior of the
structure as it is independent of the activity
inside the loop.
Each for loop has up to three expressions,
which determine its operation. The
following example shows general for loop
syntax. Notice that the three expressions in
the for loop argument parentheses are
separated with semicolons.
for(counter=2;counter
<=9;counter++)
{
//statements block will
executed 10 times
}

Nested Loop
C language allows you to use one
loop inside another loop. The
following example illustrates the
concept.
for(counter=0;counter<=9;counter++)
{
//statements block will executed 10
times
for(i=0;i<=99;i++)
{
//statements block will executed 100
times
}
}

Functions
Functions allow structuring
the programs in segments of
code to perform individual
tasks. The typical case for
creating a function is when
one needs to perform the
same action multiple times
in a program.
Advantages:
•Functions help the programmer stay organized. Often
this helps to conceptualize the programdo…while loop
•Functions codify one action in one place so that the
function only has to be thought about and debugged
once.
•This also reduces chances for errors in modification, if
the code needs to be changed.
•Functions make the whole sketch smaller and more
compact because sections of code are reused many
times.
•They make it easier to reuse code in other programs by
making it modular, and using functions often makes the
code more readable.

There are two required
functions in an Arduino
sketch or a program i.e.
setup () and loop(). Other
functions must be created
outside the brackets of these
two functions.
The most common syntax to
define a function is:

Function Declaration
A function is declared outside
any other functions, above or
below the loop function.
We can declare the function in
two different ways -

The first way is just writing the part of
the function called a function
prototype above the loop function,
which consists of:
•Function return type
•Function name
•Function argument type, no need to
write the argument name
Function prototype must be followed
by a semicolon ( ; )
int sum_func (int x, int y) // function declaration
{ int z=0; z= x+y ;
return z; // return the value
}
void setup ()
{
Statements // group of statements
}
Void loop ()
{
int result =0 ;
result = Sum_func (5,6) ; // function call
}

The second part, which is called the
function definition or declaration,
must be declared below the loop
function, which consists of -
•Function return type
•Function name
•Function argument type, here you
must add the argument name
•The function body (statements inside
the function executing when the
function is called)
int sum_func (int , int ) ; // function prototype
void setup ()
{
Statements // group of statements
}
Void loop ()
{
int result =0 ;
result = Sum_func (5,6) ; // function call
}
int sum_func (int x, int y) // function
declaration
{ int z=0; z= x+y ;
return z; // return the value
}

Strings
Strings are used to store text. They
can be used to display text on an LCD
or in the Arduino IDE Serial Monitor
window. Strings are also useful for
storing the user input. For example,
the characters that a user types on a
keypad connected to the Arduino.
There are two types of strings in
Arduino programming:
•Arrays of characters, which are the
same as the strings used in C
programming.
•The Arduino String, which lets us
use a string object in a sketch.

String Character Arrays
The first type of string that we will learn
is the string that is a series of characters
of the type char.
we learned what an array is; a
consecutive series of the same type of
variable stored in memory. A string is an
array of char variables.
A string is a special array that has one
extra element at the end of the string,
which always has the value of 0 (zero).
This is known as a "null terminated
string".
void setup()
{
char my_str[6]; // an array big enough for a 5 character
string Serial.begin(9600);
my_str[0] = 'H'; // the string consists of 5 characters
my_str[1] = 'e'; my_str[2] = 'l'; my_str[3] = 'l'; my_str[4] =
'o';
my_str[5] = 0; // 6th array element is a null terminator
Serial.println(my_str);
}
void loop()
{ }

String Character Arrays
A string is made up of; a character
array with printable characters and 0
as the last element of the array to
show that this is where the string
ends. The string can be printed out to
the Arduino IDE Serial Monitor
window by using Serial.println() and
passing the name of the string.
void setup()
{
char my_str[] = "Hello"; Serial.begin(9600);
Serial.println(my_str);
}
void loop()
{
}

Manipulating String Arrays
void setup()
{
char like[] = "I like coffee and cake"; // create a string
Serial.begin(9600);
// (1) print the string
Serial.println(like);
// (2) delete part of the string
like[13] = 0;
// (3) substitute a word into the string
like[13] = ' '; // replace the null terminator with a space
like[18] = 't'; // insert the new word like[19] = 'e'; like[20] = 'a';
like[21] = 0; // terminate the string
} void loop()
{ }
Result
I like coffee and cake
I like coffee
I like coffee and tea

Functions to Manipulate String
Arrays
Functions Description
String() The String class, part of the core as of version 0019, allows you to use and manipulate strings of text in more
complex ways than character arrays do. You can concatenate Strings, append to them, search for and replace
substrings, and more. It takes more memory than a simple character array, but it is also more useful.
For reference, character arrays are referred to as strings with a small ‘s’, and instances of the String class are
referred to as Strings with a capital S. Note that constant strings, specified in
"double quotes" are treated as char arrays, not instances of the String class
charAt() Access a particular character of the String.
compareTo() Compares two Strings, testing whether one comes before or after the other, or whether they are equal. The strings
are compared character by character, using the ASCII values of the characters. That means, for example, 'a' comes
before 'b' but after 'A'. Numbers come before letters.
concat() Appends the parameter to a String.
c_str() Converts the contents of a string as a C-style, null-terminated string. Note that this gives direct access to the
internal String buffer and should be used with care. In particular, you should never modify the string through the
pointer returned. When you modify the String object, or when it is destroyed, any pointer previously returned by
c_str() becomes invalid and should not be used any longer.
endsWith() Tests whether or not a String ends with the characters of another String.
equals() Compares two strings for equality. The comparison is casesensitive, meaning the String "hello" is not equal to the
String "HELLO".

Arrays
equalsIgnoreCase() Compares two strings for equality. The comparison is not casesensitive, meaning the String("hello") is equal to
the String("HELLO").
getBytes() Copies the string's characters to the supplied buffer.
indexOf() Locates a character or String within another String. By default, it searches from the beginning of the String, but can
also start
from a given index, allowing to locate all instances of the character or String.
lastIndexOf() Locates a character or String within another String. By default, it searches from the end of the String, but can also
work backwards from a given index, allowing to locate all instances of the character or String.
length() Returns the length of the String, in characters. (Note that this does not include a trailing null character.)
remove() Modify in place, a string removing chars from the provided index to the end of the string or from the provided
index to index plus count.
replace() The String replace() function allows you to replace all instances of a given character with another character. You
can also use replace to replace substrings of a string with a different substring.
reserve() The String reserve() function allows you to allocate a buffer in memory for manipulating strings.
setCharAt() Sets a character of the String. Has no effect on indices outside the existing length of the String.
startsWith() Tests whether or not a String starts with the characters of another String.
toCharArray() Copies the string's characters to the supplied buffer.
substring() Get a substring of a String. The starting index is inclusive (the corresponding character is included in the substring),
but the optional ending index is exclusive (the corresponding character is not included in the substring). If the
ending index is omitted, the substring continues to the end of the String.

Arrays
toInt() Converts a valid String to an integer. The input string should start with an integer number. If the string contains
non-integer numbers, the function will stop performing the conversion.
toFloat() Converts a valid String to a float. The input string should start with a digit. If the string contains non-digit
characters, the function will stop performing the conversion. For example, the strings "123.45", "123", and
"123fish" are converted to 123.45, 123.00, and 123.00 respectively. Note that "123.456" is approximated with
123.46. Note too that floats have only 6-7 decimal digits of precision and that longer strings might be truncated.
toLowerCase() Get a lower-case version of a String. As of 1.0, toLowerCase() modifies the string in place rather than returning a
new.
toUpperCase() Get an upper-case version of a String. As of 1.0, toUpperCase() modifies the string in place rather than returning a
new one.
trim() Get a version of the String with any leading and trailing whitespace removed. As of 1.0, trim() modifies the string in
place rather than returning a new one.

Serial.print("Size of the array: ");
Serial.println(num);
// (4) copy a string strcpy(out_str, str);
Serial.println(out_str);
// (5) add a string to the end of a string (append) strcat(out_str, " sketch."); Serial.println(out_str); num =
strlen(out_str);
Serial.print("String length is: ");
num = sizeof(out_str);
Serial.print("Size of the array out_str[]: ");
} void loop()
{
}
void setup()
{
char str[] = "This is my string"; // create a string
char out_str[40]; // output from string functions placed here
int num; // general purpose integer
Serial.begin(9600);
// (1) print the string
Serial.println(str);
// (2) get the length of the string (excludes null terminator) num = strlen(str);
Serial.print("String length is: ");
// (3) get the length of the array (includes null terminator) num = sizeof(str); // sizeof() is not a C string
function

The sketch works in the following way.
•Print the String
The newly created string is printed to the Serial Monitor window as done in previous sketches.
•Get the Length of the String
The strlen() function is used to get the length of the string. The length of the string is for the printable characters only and does not include
the null terminator.
The string contains 17 characters, so we see 17 printed in the Serial Monitor window.
•Get the Length of the Array
The operator sizeof() is used to get the length of the array that contains the string. The length includes the null terminator, so the length is
one more than the length of the string.
sizeof() looks like a function, but technically is an operator. It is not a part of the C string library, but was used in the sketch to show the
difference between the size of the array and the size of the string (or string length).

Copy a String
The strcpy() function is used to copy the str[] string to the out_num[] array. The strcpy() function copies the second
string passed to it into the first string. A copy of the string now exists in the out_num[] array, but only takes up 18
elements of the array, so we still have 22 free char elements in the array. These free elements are found after the
string in memory.
The string was copied to the array so that we would have some extra space in the array to use in the next part of the
sketch, which is adding a string to the end of a string.
Append a String to a String (Concatenate)
The sketch joins one string to another, which is known as concatenation. This is done using the strcat() function. The
strcat() function puts the second string passed to it onto the end of the first string passed to it.
After concatenation, the length of the string is printed to show the new string length. The length of the array is then
printed to show that we have a 25-character long string in a 40 element long array.
Remember that the 25-character long string actually takes up 26 characters of the array because of the null
terminating zero.

Thank you
Niket Chandrawanshi
Contact: +91-7415045756
niket.chandrawanshi@outlook.com
To know more: http://www.niketchandrawanshi.me/

Programming in Arduino (Part 2)

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