Write better essays in 20 minutes a day

WRITE
BETTER ESSAYS
IN JUST 20 MINUTES A DAY

WRITE
BETTER
ESSAYS
IN JUST 20
MINUTES A DAY
N E W Y O R K
2nd Edition
®

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Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC, New York.
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Write better essays in just 20 minutes a day—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Write better essays in just 20 minutes a day / Elizabeth Chesla. 1st ed.
© 2000.
ISBN 1-57685-546-5
1. English language—Rhetoric—Problems, exercises, etc. 2. Essays—Authorship—
Problems, exercises, etc. 3. Report writing—Problems, exercises, etc. I. Chesla,
Elizabeth L. Write better essays in just 20 minutes a day. II. LearningExpress
(Organization) III. Title: Write better essays in just twenty minutes a day.
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INTRODUCTION 1
PRETEST 7
SECTION 1 Planning the Essay 17
LESSON 1 Thinking about Audience and Purpose 19
LESSON 2 Understanding the Assigned Topic 25
LESSON 3 Brainstorming Techniques: Freewriting and Listing 31
LESSON 4 More Brainstorming Techniques: The 5 W’s and Mapping 37
LESSON 5 Choosing a Topic and Developing a Thesis 43
LESSON 6 Outlining and Organizational Strategies 49
LESSON 7 More Organizational Strategies 57
SECTION 2 Drafting the Essay 63
LESSON 8 Thesis Statements and the Drafting Process 65
LESSON 9 Paragraphs and Topic Sentences 71
LESSON 10 Providing Support 77
LESSON 11 Strategies for Convincing 85
Contents
v

LESSON 12 Introductions 93
LESSON 13 Conclusions 99
SECTION 3 Revising, Editing, and Proofreading the Essay 105
LESSON 14 Revising: The Big Picture 107
LESSON 15 Revising Paragraphs 113
LESSON 16 Editing 121
LESSON 17 Proofreading 131
SECTION 4 Taking an Essay Exam 141
LESSON 18 Preparing for an Essay Exam 143
LESSON 19 Drafting, Editing, and Proofreading 151
LESSON 20 Sample Essay Exam Questions and Answers 157
POSTTEST 163
ANSWER KEY 173
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 193
–CONTENTS–
vi

You probably can’t even count how many essays you’ve written for your high school classes. There are
essays assigned in English and composition classes, history and civics classes, and language classes.
Many electives even require essays. If you’re a junior or senior, you know that the stakes for essay writ-
ing keep getting higher. You’ll probably have to write one in class as part of an exam, and/or have a large part of
your grade based on an essay. But they’re not just worth grades—essays are also a part of high-stakes tests like the
ACT, Regents’, and SAT; and they’re required on college applications.
How can you improve your essay-writing skills, not only to get better grades, but also to score higher on tests
and boost your chance for admission to the college you’d like to attend? This book offers a step-by-step plan that
can be completed in just a few weeks.
How to Use This Book
There are 20 lessons in this book, each of which should take you about 20 minutes to complete. If you read five
chapters a week and complete the practice exercises carefully, you should become a more powerful and effective
essay writer in one month.
Although each lesson is designed to be an effective skill builder on its own, it is important that you proceed
through the book in order, from Lesson 1 through Lesson 20. The material in Section 2 references and builds on
what you’ll learn in Section 1, as Sections 3 and 4 reference and build on Sections 1 and 2. Writing is a process—
a series of skills, strategies, and approaches that writers use to create effective essays. In reality, this process isn’t
as linear this book presents. You might prefer to brainstorm first, and then write a thesis statement—and that’s
fine. However, once you understand the writing process, you can adapt it to your unique working style and to each
specific writing situation you encounter.
Introduction
1

The first section of the book, Planning the Essay, covers the basic prewriting steps that are essential to effec-
tive writing. Drafting the Essay, Section 2, shows you how to take your ideas and formulate a solid working draft.
In the third section, Revising, Editing, and Proofreading the Essay, you’ll learn how to shape your draft into a clear,
effective essay. Taking an Essay Exam, the fourth section, provides strategies for writing under the pressure of a
ticking clock, whether for an in-class exam or a test such as the ACT or SAT.
Each lesson includes several practice exercises that allow you to work on the skills presented in that lesson.
The exercises aren’t simply matching or multiple-choice questions. Instead, you’ll practice what you’ve learned by
doing your own writing. These practice exercises are central to your success with this book. No matter now many
examples you see, you really won’t benefit fully from the lessons unless you complete the exercises. Remember to
keep your practice answers as you work through the book—some lessons will ask you to further develop ideas gen-
erated in earlier practice exercises.
To help you stay on track, use the sample answers and explanations for the practice exercises at the back of
the book. Check them at the end of each lesson, reading the explanations carefully as you review your response
to the exercise. Keep in mind that there is no single correct answer to most exercises. What you’ll find instead are
suggested answers that contain all the elements called for in the exercise.
You’ll also find practical skill-building ideas at the end of each lesson—simple thinking or writing tasks you
can do to sharpen the skills you learned in that lesson. Some of these exercises ask you to read an essay and exam-
ine it for a specific element or detail. You can find essays in many places, such as an English or composition class
textbook, or on the Internet. If you have trouble finding appropriate writing, check the list of suggested reading
in the Additional Resources section at the end of the book.
To gauge your progress, we’ll begin with a writing pretest. You should take the test before you start Lesson
1. Then, after you’ve finished Lesson 20, take the posttest. The tests are different but comparable, so you’ll be able
to see just how much your understanding of the writing process and your writing skills have improved.
Different Types of Essays
What makes writing both interesting and challenging is that every writing task is unique. Writing is communi-
cation: You are expressing ideas about a subject to an audience for a purpose. Each time you sit down to write, one
or more of these three elements will be different, creating a unique writing situation.
Essays are one of many different forms, or genres, of writing. While there are many different kinds of essays,
general skills and strategies apply to all of them. This book will teach you those skills and strategies and help you
practice them. Specifically, we’ll help you apply those skills and strategies to three essay types:
■ The college application essay
■ Essays for high school and college classes (timed and untimed)
■ The standardized, timed essay exam (such as ACT, GED, Regents’, SAT)
Section 4 of this book (Lessons 18, 19, and 20) extensively covers the standardized, timed essay exams. Here is more
information about how to approach and successfully complete application and class assignment essays.
–INTRODUCTION–
2

The College Application Essay
Most colleges and universities require students to submit a written essay with their application. The nearly 300
schools that use the Common Application (www.commonapp.org) present five topics from which you must select
and write on one. Other schools use similar types of topics, or even ask you to come up with your own.
No matter the topic, though, the purpose of this essay remains the same: to reveal something personal about
you that will give the admissions department a better idea of who you are and why they should accept you. This
isn’t the time to wow your reader with your insights into current social problems or the poetry of the seventeenth
century. Your audience, an admissions officer, want to learn about you. A successful college application essay trans-
forms you from a two-dimensional applicant into a dynamic, three-dimensional “real”person. And in most cases,
the more real you are to the admissions officer, the more likely it is that he or she will accept you.
Of course, the application essay also gives the reader a sense of how well you can communicate in writing,
and that ability is crucial to your academic success. After all, admissions officers are not only looking to see if you’re
a good fit for the university—they also want to see that you’ll be able to handle their curriculum and that you can
read and write effectively at the college level.
Here are some Common Application topics and writing requirements found on most other applications:
1. Evaluate a significant experience, achievement, risk you have taken, or ethical dilemma you have faced, and its
impact on you.
2. Discuss some issue of personal, local, national, or international concern and its importance to you.
3. Indicate a person who has had a significant influence on you and describe that influence.
4. Describe a character in fiction, an historical figure, or a creative work (as in art, music, science, etc.) that has
had an influence on you.
5. A range of academic interests, personal perspectives, and life experiences adds much to the educational mix.
Given your personal background, describe an experience that illustrates what you would bring to the diversity
in a college community, or an encounter that demonstrated the importance of diversity to you.
6. Topic of your choice.
7. Submit a writing sample.
“Topic of your choice” and “submit a writing sample” allow you to recycle something you’ve written for a class,
or even another application (just be sure to change or delete any references to another school).
No matter which topic you select, remember that it is meant simply as a vehicle for revealing something about
you, not the historical figure, issue of international importance, or person who has influenced you. But being per-
sonal can be tricky. Anything and everything in your life or about your personality is not appropriate admissions-
essay material. College admissions officers note that the worst essays are depressing and/or paint an unflattering
picture of the applicant. Think of it this way: Your job in the essay is to get the reader to like you. Don’t hand him
or her a reason to reject you by revealing negative information. Your goal is to sound competent and responsible.
–INTRODUCTION–
3

Essays for High School and College Classes
In almost every high school or college class, you can expect at least part, if not all, of your evaluation for the term
to be based on your written work. In a college literature class, for example, 100% of your grade will probably be
based on two out-of-class essays, an in-class midterm, and a final essay, which may be a timed exam. In a politi-
cal science class, your midterm and final exams might include multiple-choice, short answer, and essay questions.
Your success in school depends heavily on your ability to write effectively, both in and out of the classroom.
Types of Essay Assignments
Essay assignments in high school and college classes will be as varied as the instructors who teach them. Most
assignments, however, will fall into one of two categories:
1. The Personal Essay
In composition classes and in college placement exams, you will often be asked to write an essay based on a
personal experience or observation. Here are two examples:
Alison Lurie wrote, “Long before I am near enough to talk to you in the street or at a party, you announce your
personality and opinions to me through what you are wearing. By the time we meet and converse, we have
already spoken to each other in an older and more universal language: the language of clothing.” Write an essay
in which you agree or disagree with this statement. Use evidence from your personal experience, observations,
or reading to support your position.
4
Here are a few other specific strategies to help you write a winning college application essay:
■ Avoid clichés. The typical admissions officer reads hundreds of essays each winter. You won’t stand out,
and you’ll run the risk of boring him or her, if you write about a subject also chosen by dozens of other stu-
dents. What’s been done too many times before? Here are a few subjects virtually guaranteed to bore your
audience: how you’ve been influenced by a famous person, the death of a grandparent, losing the big game,
why you want peace in the Middle East, etc.
■ Think local, not global. The small, uniquely personal experience is more revealing than your response to 9/11
or your plan to solve global warming. “Local,” or small, also guarantees that your essay will be original.
Choose a subject that you alone have found significance in, and you’ll have a better chance of writing the
kind of essay they’re looking for.
■ Don’t brag or overstate your importance. There is a fine line between appropriately advocating for yourself
and your talents, and sounding like a walking ego. In general, don’t take credit for anything you shouldn’t
(did your team really win the championship because of your leadership skills?).
■ Avoid offensive topics. You don’t know if your essay will be read by a 20-something, a 70-something, Demo-
crat or Republican, male or female, gay or straight, white or black, Christian or Buddhist. Therefore, the risk
of offending this unknown reader is great. You should steer clear of touchy subjects, and be careful not to
dismiss or critique the other side of your argument while laying out your own.
Tips for Success

Describe a time when you presented yourself as believing in something you really did not believe in. Why did
you present yourself that way? What were the consequences, if any, of this misrepresentation? How would you
present yourself in a similar situation today? Explain.
2. The Analysis Essay
In most other classes, essay assignments will often ask you to analyze specific texts, ideas, events, or issues.
Here are three examples from different disciplines:
From a religious point of view, what is truth? Use examples from two different religions to support your answer.
Analyze a local television news program. What stories and events get coverage? How are these stories and events
covered? What values and beliefs about America, about the world, and about television and its viewers do you
think the news program’s coverage reflects?
What illusions does Renoir’s film La Grande Illusion refer to? Discuss those illusions and how the historic
events that led to World War I helped foster them.
5
Here are some strategies for successful high school and college essays:
■ Fulfill the assignment. Have a clear thesis that directly responds to the assignment, and develop it as required.
■ Provide solid support. Whether you’re writing a personal essay or an analysis essay, you need to show read-
ers that your thesis is valid. Support your ideas with specific examples, evidence, and details.
■ Be correct. You need to convey your ideas clearly. Make sure your sentences are clear and free of errors in
grammar and mechanics.
■ Write with style. Most of your essays will be on the formal side, but that doesn’t mean they have to be dull
and dry. Choose interesting words that state exactly what you mean, including vivid verbs and specific adjec-
tives and adverbs.
Tips for Success

Before you begin this book, it’s a good idea to ﬁnd out how much you already know and how much
you need to learn about the essay-writing process. This test is designed to help you do that. It con-
sists of two parts. Part 1 contains 20 multiple-choice questions addressing several key components
in this book. Part 2 asks you to write your own essay and evaluate it according to the criteria provided.
You can use the space on the pages following Part 2 to record your answers and write your essay. Or, if you
prefer, simply circle the answers directly for Part 1. Obviously, if this book doesn’t belong to you, use separate sheets
of lined paper to write your responses.
Take as much time as you need for Part 1 (although 20 minutes is an average completion time). When you’re
ﬁnished, check your answers against the answer key at the end of this book. Each answer tells you which lesson
deals with the concept addressed in that question. Set aside another 30 minutes to complete Part 2.
Pretest
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–LEARNINGEXPRESS ANSWER SHEET–
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20. a b c d e
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Part 1
1. All essays should be about ﬁve or six paragraphs long.
a. true
b. false
2. The best place in an essay for the thesis statement is generally
a. the ﬁrst sentence in an essay.
b. the last sentence in an essay.
c. the end of the introduction.
d. in the third paragraph.
3. A good introduction should do which of the following?
a. grab the reader’s attention
b. state the thesis
c. provide the main supporting ideas for the thesis
d. both a and b
e. all of the above
4. Your relationship with your readers has an effect on how you write your essay.
a. true
b. false
5. Which of the following best describes the problem with the following paragraph?
Sullivan studied 25 city playgrounds. He found several serious problems. The playgrounds were dirty. They
were also overcrowded. They were also dangerous. Many parks had broken glass everywhere. Many parks also
had broken equipment.
a. lack of variety in sentence structure
b. grammatical errors
c. lack of transitions
d. poor word choice
6. Which organizational strategy does the paragraph in question 5 use?
a. compare and contrast
b. chronology
c. problem ➞ solution
d. order of importance
–PRETEST–
11

7. Read the following essay assignment carefully.
Some say “ignorance is bliss.” Others claim that ignorance is a form of slavery and that only knowledge can set
you free. With which view do you agree? Explain your answer.
Determine which sentence below best describes the kind of essay you should write.
a. Explain the difference between “ignorance” and “knowledge.”
b. Explain which belief you concur with and why.
c. Explain how you think we can improve education.
d. Discuss the evils of slavery.
8. Which of the following organizational patterns applies to all essays?
a. order of importance
b. cause and effect
c. assertion ➞ support
d. problem ➞ solution
9. A thesis is best deﬁned as
a. the prompt for an essay.
b. the main idea of an essay.
c. an essay that is at least three pages long.
d. the way a writer introduces an essay.
10. In the following paragraph, the ﬁrst sentence is best described as which of the following?
More and more Americans are turning to alternative medicine. The ancient art of aromatherapy has gained a
tremendous following, particularly on the West Coast. Acupuncture, the traditional Chinese art of “needle ther-
apy,” has doubled its number of active practitioners in the past decade. And holistic medicine—treating the
whole body instead of just one part—is so popular that some HMOs now even pay for holistic care.
a. a transition sentence
b. a topic sentence
c. a supporting idea
d. a thesis
11. In the paragraph in question 10, the second sentence is best described as which of the following?
a. a transition sentence
b. a topic sentence
c. a supporting idea
d. a thesis
12. Which of the following should a conclusion NOT do?
a. Bring in a new idea.
b. Restate the thesis in fresh words.
c. Provide a sense of closure.
d. Focus on the reader’s emotions.
–PRETEST–
12

13. Words and phrases like meanwhile, on the other hand, and for example are known as
a. passive words.
b. assertions.
c. modiﬁers.
d. transitions.
14. Which of the following strategies is particularly useful during an essay exam?
a. brainstorming
b. freewriting
c. outlining
d. journaling
15. Brainstorming typically takes place during which step in the writing process?
a. planning
b. drafting
c. proofreading
d. revising
16. Revising and proofreading are interchangeable terms.
a. true
b. false
17. Support for a thesis can come in which of the following forms?
a. speciﬁc examples
b. expert opinion
c. anecdotes
d. both a and b
e. a, b, and c
18. Never use a one-sentence paragraph.
a. true
b. false
19. What is the main problem with the following sentence?
Newman lost the election because of the fact that the opponent whom he ran against had a lot more money
for ads.
a. It’s a run-on sentence.
b. It’s not properly punctuated.
c. It’s unnecessarily wordy.
d. It lacks parallel structure.
e. There is no problem with this sentence.
–PRETEST–
13

20. Which of the following strategies will make an essay more convincing?
a. avoiding run-on sentences
b. acknowledging counterarguments
c. providing speciﬁc examples and details
d. both b and c
e. both a and c
Part 2
Set a timer for 30 minutes. When you’re ready to begin, carefully read the following essay assignment. Use the space
provided to write your essay. Stop writing when 20 minutes have elapsed, even if you haven’t completed your essay.
When you’re ﬁnished, look at the scoring chart in the answer key to estimate your essay’s score.
Essay Assignment
Many people have been profoundly affected by great works of art. Describe a work of art—a book, a movie, a pho-
tograph, a drawing, a painting, a song, or a musical composition—that had a powerful impact on your life. What
work of art was it? How did it affect you? Why?
–PRETEST–
14

17
S E C T I O N
1 Planning
the Essay
While creativity and inspiration can play an important role in good
essay writing, planning, drafting, and revision are critical. Whether
you have to write an essay in class, during a test, or at home, getting
down to the business of writing means focusing on these three things. In this section, you’ll
learn planning strategies that will not only improve the effectiveness and quality of your
writing, but will also help eliminate many of the frustrations writers face. In addition, they’ll
beneﬁt your reader by showing him or her how the various points you make in your essay
work together and how they support your thesis.
When you begin your essay with planning, you will have guidance and direction
through the writing process, especially if you are in a timed situation. Planning lets you
see how your many developing ideas ﬁt within a framework, and clearly maps out any type
of essay you are required to write.

Imagine you’ve just had an amazing experience: You were able to save someone’s life by performing CPR.
You want to share the experience with three people: your father, your best friend, and the admissions offi-
cer at your first-choice college. How will you describe what happened? Will that description be the same
for each person? Probably not. Although the subject remains a constant, each person is a different audience, requir-
ing different word choices, levels of formality, and tone.
Because you are sharing the experience with these three people for different reasons, the purpose of your
description changes, too. You might tell your father to let him know that his advice about taking a CPR course
was invaluable. To your friend, you might stress the emotions the experience evoked. In your college application
essay, you place an emphasis on the experience’s revelation of your competent and responsible nature.
Audience and purpose not only determine how you write; they shape your content, or what you write as well.
Therefore, the first step to writing better essays is to understand who you are writing for and why you are writing.
L E S S O N
Thinking about
Audience and
Purpose
LESSON SUMMARY
The first step toward effective essay writing is to know why and for
whom you’re writing. This lesson explains how to understand your
audience and purpose and how these two factors affect your writing.
1
19

Understanding Your Audience
Imagine that you’ve been asked to write about your life-saving experience for the local hospital newsletter. You
expect your audience to be adults, so you plan and draft your article in anticipation of that audience. But when
you submit it, you find that the hospital plans to use your article in a supplement for elementary school students.
Can they print it as written? Not if they want their readers to understand what you’ve written.
Understanding your audience is a critical component of effective writing. Before you begin any type of essay,
you must find out:
1. Who will read your essay and why are they reading it?
2. What do they know about your subject?
3. What is your relationship with the reader?
Pinpointing Your Audience
If you’re writing for a teacher, you know his or her name and face, as well as the expectations he or she has for your
writing. But determining your audience doesn’t always mean knowing exactly who will be reading, grading, or
scoring your essay. In fact, often you’ll need to write for someone, or a number of people, you’ll never meet. For
example, if you are taking the ACT or SAT, you know that two people will read your essay and score it. You also
know the criteria for each score. You don’t know the readers’ names, or where they’re from, but you know
enough about what they’re looking for to understand how to write to them. Knowing your audience in this case
means knowing what they’re looking for.
In other words, your readers will pick up your writing in order to give it a grade or score. You need to know
their expectations in order to fulfill them. What does your English teacher consider an A essay? How does a col-
lege admissions officer judge an essay? For the SAT and ACT, what does the scoring rubric look like? What are the
differences between an essay that gets a 6, and one that gets a 2? Here are some general guidelines:
WHO THEY ARE WHAT THEY’RE LOOKING FOR
Admissions officer an engaging essay that reveals your personality, goals, and values; evidence that
you can organize your thoughts and communicate effectively
SAT and ACT scorers a polished rough draft that responds to the topic, develops a point of view, and sup-
ports that point of view with examples and evidence
AP Exam evaluators a clear and cohesive essay that demonstrates mastery of the subject matter
High school teachers a combination of the following: mastery of the material (do you understand the
book, concept, issue?); a clear and original thesis; mastery of the essay form (clear
thesis, strong support, logical organization); mastery of standard written English
Here’s an example. Imagine that you have been asked to write about a poem. Clearly, you could not write
the same essay for a college application and an English Literature AP exam. You have two different sets of actual
readers who want two very different things from you.
–THINKING ABOUT AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE–
20

Admissions officers, for example, would prefer a very personal response to the poem, one that reveals
something about who you are and what is important to you. They might want to know if the poem helps you bet-
ter understand something about yourself and your values. They might want to know how you understand the poem.
What does it mean to you? How does it make you feel? What do you get out of it? How can you relate it to your life?
The Audience’s Relationship to the Subject
In addition, it’s essential to consider the relationship of your audience to your subject. What are they likely to know
about your topic? How interested will they be in what you have to say? How likely are they to agree or disagree
with your ideas?
What Your Readers Know about the Subject
One of the biggest mistakes writers make is to assume that their readers know what they’re talking about. Just
because you know your subject intimately doesn’t mean your readers do. You need to carefully consider how much
your readers may know about your subject. For example, you’ve decided to write about your interest in robotics
for your college application essay. If you use terms like “range weighted Hough Transform”and “sensor fusion algo-
rithm,” chances are your readers won’t know what you’re talking about. You’ll either have to explain your terms
or replace the technical jargon with words the average reader can understand.
Similarly, say you decide to write about your favorite novel. Should you assume your readers have read the
novel? If they have, should you assume that they read it recently enough to remember its characters, plot, and
themes? Unless you know for sure, or unless your assignment specifically mentions an assumption (“assume your
readers have read The Great Gatsby carefully”), you must provide sufficient background information for your read-
ers. You’ll need to briefly summarize the plot and provide context for the specific scenes and issues you’d like to
discuss.
How Your Readers Feel about the Subject
Another important consideration is how your readers might feel about the subject. Will they be interested in it?
If not, what can you do to arouse their interest? If you’ve taken a position on an issue, how likely is it that your
readers will share your opinion? If they’re likely to disagree, how can you help them accept, or at least understand,
your position? (You’ll learn more about this issue in Lesson 11.)
Your Relationship to the Reader
Finally, there’s one more question to ask about your audience: What is your relationship to him or her? This rela-
tionship helps determine the style, tone, and format of your essay.
Though the writing situations discussed in this book are different, your relationship to the actual reader is
quite similar in each case: that of evaluatee to evaluator. The primary reason your actual readers—college admis-
sion officers, SAT and ACT scorers, AP essay exam readers, and teachers—are reading your essay is not for their
reading pleasure. Instead, they are reading to evaluate.
How does this relationship affect your writing? For most situations, it is in your best interest to be formal
(but not stuffy), respectful (but not overly gracious), and courteous (but not ceremonious). You must also fol-
low the provided guidelines or expectations. For example, if your instructor wants your essay typed in a 12-point
font, double-spaced, with one-inch margins, and one staple in the top left-hand corner, that’s exactly what you
should hand in.
21

Practice 1
1. Briefly explain how to write for an audience that will remain unknown to you personally.
2. A Martian has just landed in your backyard. He asks where he’s landed. You answer, “America.” “What kind of
place is America?” he replies.
a. Who is your audience for this writing assignment?
b. Given your audience, how should you approach your topic, and why?
Knowing Your Purpose
Whether you’re writing a college application essay or an essay for your political science class, one of your goals is
to receive a positive evaluation for your essay. But for that to happen, the essay itself must have a clear purpose.
As important as knowing whom you’re writing for is knowing why you’re writing. What is the goal of your
essay? What are you hoping to convey through your writing? If your essay effectively achieves its purpose, you’re
more likely to achieve your goal of a high grade or score.
To help you clarify your purpose, you can try a simple fill-in-the-blank:
My goal in this essay is to .
Try to find a verb, or verbs, that best describe what you want your essay to do. For example:
My goal in the essay is to: demonstrate that I am a resourceful person.
explain why I took a year off after high school and show how that year prepared me
for college.
prove that Victor Frankenstein, rather than his creature, is the monster.
22

Here are some other verbs that can help define purpose:
compare describe propose
contrast encourage review
convince explore show
defend inform summarize
Notice how the verb specifies purpose in the following example:
Herman Melville wrote, “He who never made a mistake never made a discovery.” In an essay, describe how a mistake
you made led to an important discovery.
My goal is to show how my mistake taught me an important lesson: If you don’t follow directions, someone can
get hurt.
By clarifying your audience and purpose, you can help ensure that your essay does what it’s supposed to, and
that its content, structure, and style will be right for its audience. Knowing what you want to say, to whom, and
why, should always be the first step in the writing process.
Practice 2
For this assignment, how would you describe your purpose?
Read Langston Hughes’s essay “Salvation.” In an essay, discuss the central conflict that Hughes describes. How does
Hughes resolve that conflict?
In Short
Effective writing begins with a clear understanding of audience and purpose. Know your audience: who will read
your essay, why they will read it, and what they already know about your subject. Consider your relationship to
your readers, and be sure to carefully consider your purpose. Why are you writing? What do you hope to achieve
in your essay?
23

24
Because a clear sense of audience and purpose is essential to good writing, you should be able to deter-
mine the intended audience and purpose of a given text. Select an article from a magazine or news-
paper, and read it carefully. Who is the primary audience? What was the writer trying to achieve?
Skill Building until Next Time

Whether you like the freedom of choosing your own topic or prefer to have the topic chosen for
you, one thing is certain: If you are writing an essay for a college application, the SAT or ACT,
an AP Exam, or a high school course, you must fulfill the assignment. If the assignment asks
you to write about a particular issue—year-round school, for example—you can’t expect to succeed if you write
about the need for campaign finance reform. On the SAT, failure to address the topic is grounds for a score of zero—
no matter how well you wrote your essay.
Even the most open-ended essay assignments have guidelines that must be followed. There may be a spe-
cific issue to address, an approach to take, or a length requirement to fulfill. When the assignment isn’t open ended,
there are even more constraints. But that’s not necessarily a bad thing. Assignments give you a framework within
which to work. That framework can not only guide you through the writing process, but can also eliminate the
time you would otherwise spend deciding on a suitable topic.
L E S S O N
Understanding
the Assigned
Topic
LESSON SUMMARY
This lesson explains how to break down an assignment to understand
exactly what is required.
2
25

Fulfilling the Assignment
The essay assignments found on college applications, AP Exams, and the SAT and ACT are the product of con-
siderable study and research. They are designed to elicit essays that fulfill a specific need. Colleges need to know
more about you in order to make admissions decisions, so they ask you to write about personal issues. The ACT
and SAT writing tests are designed to give colleges and universities a better idea of your writing aptitude. Even your
high school teacher, when he or she hands out an essay assignment, is looking for something specific.
You may think that writing about something other than what’s assigned portrays you as an independent
thinker, someone who can come up with ideas and doesn’t need to be told what to do. But that’s not the message
you’d be sending. If you’re doing your own thing and avoiding the topic, you’re telling your readers that you don’t
care about what they want, you don’t understand the topic, or you don’t know enough about the assigned mate-
rial to write about it.
Fulfilling the assignment, on the other hand, sends a positive message to readers. It tells them that:
1. You know how to follow directions.
2. You can handle the subject matter.
3. You can meet the challenge presented to you.
Additionally, in timed situations, fulfilling the assignment shows that:
4. You can organize your thoughts about a specific topic while under pressure.
Understanding the Assignment
In order to fulfill the assignment, you must understand exactly what the assignment is asking you to do. While
this sounds simple, consider that many essay assignments aren’t obvious. What does it mean, for example, to “dis-
cuss” an experience? How are you supposed to “analyze” an issue?
Breaking Down the Assignment
To comprehend an assignment, you need to understand the following:
■ What you are to respond to (the topic)
■ How you are to respond to it
In some cases, there may be more than one topic and more than one way you are supposed to respond. To
find out the expectations, break down the assignment. First, underline the words that describe the topic. Then,
circle all of the words that tell you how to respond. These “direction words”include analyze, describe, discuss, explain,
evaluate, identify, illustrate, and argue.
For example, here is a writing assignment from an AP Biology exam:
Describe the chemical nature of genes. Discuss the replicative process of DNA in eukaryotic organisms. Be sure to include
the various types of gene mutations that can occur during replication.
By breaking down the assignment, you can identify three subjects, each with its own direction word. The sub-
jects are underlined and the direction words are circled:
–UNDERSTANDING THE ASSIGNED TOPIC–
26

Describe the chemical nature of genes. Discuss the replicative process of DNA in eukaryotic organisms. Be sure
to include the various types of gene mutations that can occur during replication.
To help make the assignment even more manageable, break down the two parts (topic and direction words)
into a simple chart:
SUBJECT DIRECTIONS
1. the chemical nature of genes describe
2. the replicative process of DNA in eukaryotic organisms discuss
3. the various types of gene mutations that can occur during replication include
To completely fulﬁll the assignment, you must cover all three of these subjects in the manner in which the
assignment dictates.
When the Assignment Is a Question
In some assignments, you are given questions instead of direction words. Here’s an example:
What were the issues, successes, and failures of the Civil Rights movement from the 1960s through the 1970s?
Notice that there are no direction words. For this type of essay prompt, you will need to determine the word
or words yourself. Reread the question, paying careful attention to each word. Notice it begins with What were.
This is a good clue that you should identify the issues, successes, and failures.
Translating questions into directions can be tricky, but it’s a critical step in understanding the prompt. You
need to determine exactly how you’re supposed to respond to the subject. The following chart lists common ques-
tion words and corresponding direction words.
27
QUESTION WORDS WHAT THEY USUALLY MEAN
What is/are . . . deﬁne or identify
What caused . . . identify or explain
How are/does . . . explain or evaluate
How is X like . . . compare
How is X different . . . contrast
In what way . . . illustrate
Do you agree? argue
Why is/does . . . explain
What do you think of X? evaluate

Practice 1
Read the essay topics carefully. Use the subject and directions columns in the tables provided to break them down
into parts. (Note: You may not need to fill each table.)
1. Describe the change in citizens’ attitudes toward the federal government in the last decade. Explain what you
believe to be the causes of this change. Finally, assess the impact of this attitude on the power of the government.
SUBJECT DIRECTIONS
2. In Alice Walker’s novel The Color Purple, does Celie have control over her destiny? Explain your answer.
SUBJECT DIRECTIONS
3. Describe in detail the current definition of a planet. How does it differ from the definitions of stars and aster-
oids? If size becomes a defining characteristic of a planet, how will that change the solar system as we know it
today?
SUBJECT DIRECTIONS
28

Understanding Direction Words
You’ve broken down the assignment and isolated the direction words. But what do those direction words really
mean? In the following table, you’ll find the most common essay direction words and their explanations.
TERM MEANING
Analyze Divide the issue into its main parts and discuss each part. Consider how the parts interact and
how they work together to form the whole.
Argue Express your opinion about the subject, and support it with evidence, examples, and details.
Assess See evaluate.
Classify Organize the subject into groups and explain why the groupings make sense.
Compare Point out similarities.
Contrast Point out differences.
Define Give the meaning of the subject.
Describe Show readers what the subject is like; give an account of the subject.
Discuss Point out the main issues or characteristics of the subject and elaborate.
Evaluate Make a judgment about the effectiveness and success of the subject. What is good and bad
about it? Why? Describe your criteria for your judgment.
Explain Make your position, issue, process, etc. clear by analyzing, defining, comparing, contrasting, or
illustrating.
Identify Name and describe.
Illustrate Provide examples of the subject.
Indicate Explain what you think the subject means and how you came to that interpretation (what makes
you conclude that it means X).
Relate Point out and discuss any connections.
Summarize Describe the main ideas or points.
Here are a couple of examples:
Compare and contrast prohibition and the current anti-tobacco movement.
This assignment gives you two direction words: compare and contrast. Therefore, you should locate and dis-
cuss the similarities and differences between the two subjects (prohibition and the anti-tobacco movement).
Rousseau offers judgments about the relative goodness and badness of life as a savage and of life in society. Assess the
validity of these judgments. What arguments does he provide to support them? Are they sound arguments?
29

The explicit direction word in this assignment is assess. The implied direction word for the first question
“What arguments does he provide to support them?”is identify. The implied direction word for the second ques-
tion “Are they sound arguments?” is evaluate. For this assignment, you are expected to:
1. Assess the validity and soundness of Rousseau’s judgments.
2. Identify the arguments he uses to support his judgments.
3. Evaluate the strengths and/or weaknesses of his argument.
Practice 2
Reread the essay topics from Practice 1. Given the direction words, briefly summarize how you would approach
each essay. Do not use the specific direction words in your answers.
1.
2.
3.
In Short
For every writing situation you encounter, you must fulfill the requirements of the assignment. Break down the
assignment into its parts. Identify the subjects you must cover and the direction words that tell you how to address
those subjects. Then you can proceed by writing an essay that meets your evaluator’s expectations.
30
When you sit down to write an essay, you probably won’t have a copy of the direction word chart from
page 29. To familiarize yourself with the meanings of the words, write an assignment using each one.

Many students procrastinate when faced with essay assignments for the same reason—they
don’t know what to write about. This is especially true when students are free to select the topic.
Instead of feeling liberated, they find themselves wishing for specific direction. Nowhere is this
more critical than in a timed essay exam, when you have to choose a topic quickly in order to complete the exam
within 20 to 30 minutes. Fortunately, a few simple strategies can help you generate ideas for any essay assignment.
Brainstorming Ideas
How do you generate ideas? Some writers stare at a blank page waiting for inspiration, while others dive into a
draft hoping ideas will come as they write. Both of these techniques take time and often result in disappointment.
There are more productive ways to come up with material for your essay—both in terms of time spent and in the
quality of that material. Whether you are assigned a topic, must come up with one on your own, or are writing
under a time constraint, taking the time to focus and shape your thoughts will result in a better final product.
L E S S O N
Brainstorming
Techniques:
Freewriting
and Listing
LESSON SUMMARY
Even the most experienced writers sometimes have trouble coming up
with ideas. This lesson teaches you two important techniques for gen-
erating ideas.
3
31

■ Resist the temptation to look back at what you have written during the process.
■ If you can’t stay on topic, keep writing anything to maintain the flow.
■ Don’t censor yourself; no one will see your freewriting, so commit every thought to paper.
■ Follow your ideas wherever they lead you.
■ When finished, read your freewriting with a highlighter, noting the most interesting and strongest ideas.
■ Try the process again after you’ve focused your topic; more ideas may be generated.
Keys to Successful Freewriting
The most effective technique for focusing and shaping your thoughts is brainstorming—allowing yourself
some time to make connections with your subject, noting everything and anything that comes to mind. In this
lesson and the next, you’ll learn four specific strategies for brainstorming. They may be used both to generate new
ideas and to clarify those you already have. Brainstorming can also be used effectively when you are faced with a
number of possible essay topics and must determine which is the best vehicle to express your unique thoughts and
experiences. Some are better suited to a longer writing process, such as the college admissions essay, while others
may be adapted for when you have a shorter period to complete an essay, as with the SAT.
Freewriting
Freewriting is probably the best-known prewriting technique. It works well when you have some thoughts on a
topic, but can’t envision them as an essay. Freewriting also functions as a developmental tool, nurturing isolated
ideas into an essay-worthy one. People who use this technique often surprise themselves with what comes out on
paper. It is common to discover a thought or point you didn’t realize you had.
Specifically, freewriting means spending a predetermined period of time writing nonstop, focusing on a spe-
cific topic. In fact, freewriting should be called “flow writing,”because the most important aspect to this prewrit-
ing technique is the flow, or momentum, that comes when you stay with it. It works best when you write in full
sentences, but phrases are also effective. The key is to keep writing, without regard for grammar, spelling, or wor-
thiness of ideas. Your speed will help keep you from editing or discarding any ideas.
Freewriting Example
A student received the following essay assignment:
Adrienne Rich wrote: “Lying is done with words and also with silence.” Do you agree? Use your personal experience
and/or your observations to support your answer.
–BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUES: FREEWRITING AND LISTING–
32

Here is the result of a short freewriting session:
Do I agree? I think so. Is it a lie if you don’t say something when you know something? Not technically, but it has
the same effect, doesn’t it? I remember when I saw Jay with someone else but I didn’t tell Karen. She never came
out and asked me if Jay was cheating on her, but I knew. But that’s not really a lie is it so what do you call it?
But there are more important cases where not telling the truth can be deadly. Like if you know someone is plan-
ning to commit a crime, and you don’t tell anyone. Didn’t someone go to jail for not telling the police she knew
about the Oklahoma City bombing before it happened? But that’s not a lie, it’s just not telling, so not telling is
not the same as lying. But it can have equally terrible consequences. I guess the point is that you know a truth
but you don’t reveal it. So they’re not the same but they do the same thing. People can get hurt. Unless you believe
what you don’t know won’t hurt you. But that probably falls into the same category as a white lie. It’s the other
lies and other silences that are the problem.
During her freewriting session, this student came up with a couple of examples and, through them, found
a tentative thesis for her essay. She also brought up some issues that will be central to her argument, including the
definition of a lie and whether people have a moral obligation to speak up when they have certain kinds of knowl-
edge. You can also see that the student has several run-on sentences, some repetition, and a very informal style.
That is part of the freewriting technique.
Practice 1
Using a separate sheet of paper or your computer, spend five minutes freewriting on the following essay assign-
ment. Remember, there is no wrong answer for this exercise as long as you address the topic. Keep your pen or
your typing fingers moving, don’t stop, and don’t edit or judge. Just set the timer for five minutes, and write.
In his essay “Urban Strategy,” William Rhoden describes a time that he put himself at risk to do what he thought was
right. Describe a time when you, like Rhoden, put yourself at risk (physically, socially, emotionally, academically) to
do what you thought was right. Was it worth the risk? Why or why not?
Listing
Listing is similar to freewriting in that it is a timed, flowing exercise meant to elicit many thoughts and ideas on
a given topic. However, instead of putting whole sentences or phrases on paper, this prewriting technique involves
creating a list. It might contain various individual thoughts, ideas that make sense in a particular order, and/or
ideas linked together by association with previous ideas.
Listing is a great brainstorming strategy for collaborative writing projects, which work best when they begin
with the entire group collecting ideas. In addition, unlike freewriting, listing works well in a timed writing situ-
ation. Even within the 25 minutes allotted for the SAT essay, spend a few minutes first listing your ideas before
beginning to write.
33

In this example, a student used listing to generate ideas for his college application essay.
In your opinion, what is the greatest challenge your generation will face? What ideas do you have for dealing with this
issue?
■ Being overwhelmed by technology
■ Staying in physically touch when everything becomes virtual
■ How will we know what’s real?
■ If people live longer, what about the generation gap?
■ Find better ways to take care of parents, and grandparents
■ Being overwhelmed by information
■ What about the people who don’t have access to technology—social inequality
■ The environment
■ Slow consumption of our resources
■ Recycle more
■ Come up with alternative fuel sources
■ World government?
■ Disease—new viruses—bird flu?
■ What about our new power for destruction, biowarfare?
Practice 2
Take three to five minutes to brainstorm a list of ideas for the following assignment:
Many forces contribute to our sense of self. What is a strong determining factor for your sense of identity?
34
■ If you are not already being timed, set a timer for at least 15 minutes (the more time you spend, the more
and better ideas you will probably come up with).
■ Write every word or phrase that comes to mind about your topic. If you have not selected a topic, write an
answer to the question(s), “What do I have to say to my audience?” or “What do I want my audience to know
about me?”
■ As with freewriting, do not edit or censor any ideas, and ignore the rules of spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
■ When you are finished, look over the list carefully. Cross out useless information, and organize what is left.
Categorize similar items.
How to Use Listing

In Short
Two effective ways to generate ideas are the freewriting and listing brainstorming techniques. Simply write non-
stop about your assignment for a set period of time, either going across the page in sentences (freewriting) or down
the page in a list (listing). Don’t judge your ideas, and don’t edit. The more freely you write, the easier it will be
to tap into your creativity—and the more ideas you’ll come up with.
35
Use the freewriting and listing techniques for any kind of writing or thinking tasks this week. For exam-
ple, if you have to buy a gift for a friend, brainstorm a list of ideas. Or, if you have to make an important
decision, freewrite about the pros and cons for ﬁve minutes.

People learn and process information in many different ways. Some of us learn best by seeing, oth-
ers by hearing, and still others by doing. Some of us prefer a deﬁned structure or framework, while
others think best when there are no constraints. For those who like structure, the 5W’s (who, what,
where, when, why) offer an easy framework for generating ideas. For visual learners and thinkers, graphic organ-
ization tools like mapping work best.
Asking Questions
Asking “who, what, where, when, and why”is a formula that journalists, detectives, and researchers use to get a com-
plete story. This technique is particularly useful when you’re choosing an essay topic and when focusing a topic once
you’ve made a selection. There are two sets of questions for taking stock, one suited for an impersonal or research-
type essay, and the other geared toward a personal essay. Unlike some of the other brainstorming techniques, you
should ask questions deliberately, with great thought given to each question. Do not rush or include every idea that
comes to mind. Even if you are being timed, take a moment to give the best answer you can for each question. The
better focused your answers, the more information you will have to use in your essay.
L E S S O N
Brainstorming
Techniques:
The 5 W’s
and Mapping
LESSON SUMMARY
This lesson describes two more techniques for generating ideas for
your essays: asking reporters’ questions and mapping.
4
37

1. Who: Who is involved? At what level? Who is affected?
2. What: What is your topic? What is its significance? What is at stake? What are the issues?
3. Where: Where does your subject occur? Where is its source?
4. When: When does your topic occur? When did it begin/end? When must action be taken to deal
with it?
5. Why: Why is your subject of interest? Why did it develop as it did? Why should others be interested
in your topic?
If you are writing a research paper or other type of nonpersonal writing, and your topic is already selected
or assigned, concentrate on the standard W’s: who, what, where, when, and why. These questions will help you
quickly develop a great deal of information about your subject. Not every question will apply to every essay, and
the prompts that follow each W are meant to be taken as suggestions. Be flexible, and use the format as it best fits
your topic.
––BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUES: THE 5 W’S AND MAPPING–
38
1. Where have you been (chronological history)?
2. What have you accomplished or achieved?
3. What do you do with your time when not in school?
4. What are you good at? Passionate about?
5. Who are/were your major influences?
Admissions essays and some exit essays are intended to be personal, so you must focus on yourself. Take time
answering personal questions such as the following. This process involves a different set of W’s, meant to elicit
key information about you and about the topic if it has been chosen.
Here’s how the 5 W’s might work for the following assignment:
Television is a very powerful medium.What do you think is the ideal place of television in our lives, and why? Explain.
How close is the reality to that ideal?
Who watches TV?
What kinds of shows are people watching?
What happens to kids who watch too much TV? (affects schoolwork, relationships with others?)
What about people who have no TVs? Are they more informed? Less informed?
What do people expect from TV? Relaxation? Information? Entertainment?
Where do people place TVs in their homes? Kids’ rooms? (effect on family relationships, socialization?)
Bedroom? (effect on sleeping/relaxation?) Kitchen? (effect on conversation during meals?)

What effect does TV have on our lives? Hurts us? Helps us?
What if we got rid of TV?
When was TV invented?
Why do people watch TV?
Notice the number of questions and the amount of possible essay material this student was able to gener-
ate. Some of the questions are more relevant to the assignment than others (“when was TV invented” probably
won’t be relevant, for example). But clearly, this student has many ideas to work with. In the next lesson, you’ll
learn how to use a brainstorming session like this to develop a thesis and organize your essay ideas.
Practice 1
Use the 5 W’s technique to generate ideas for the following assignment.
School uniforms for public school students is among the most controversial proposals for education reform in Amer-
ica. Where do you stand on this issue? Defend your position.
Mapping
Mapping is a graphic (visual) organizer that allows you to investigate the relationships between many diverse ideas.
It’s a simple process best used for exploring simple topics. To make a map, draw a circle and add spokes radiat-
ing from it. Put your central idea or subject in the middle, and add subtopics or related ideas around it in any order.
Or, draw a box with your subject written in it and continue adding boxes, connected to each other by arrows, show-
ing the development of your idea. As with other brainstorming techniques, don’t judge yourself during this process.
Write down any and every thought you have on your subject.
39

40
How I have
been influenced
by my English
teacher
personal
philosophy
reading
choices
strength
in dealing
with difficult
issues
discipline
learned
life lessons
from assigned
reading
not afraid
to assign
tough
material
push
yourself past
what you
think you are
capable of
use words
and action
to show others
who you
really are
makes us
ask and answer
the hard
questions
at least
30 minutes
of reading
a day
5 minutes
of writing
a day
found
positives
in battle
with cancer
Example of a Concept Map
This student came up with four main branches of ideas—discipline, reading choices, personal philosophy, and
strength in dealing with difﬁcult issues. The map shows how one idea led to another and how ideas are related
to one another. That’s an advantage of this technique: You can see immediately where your ideas lie. Clearly,
this student has much to say about discipline as it related to his teacher’s inﬂuence on him.
For the next assignment, notice how the resulting map differs from the previous example.

Outlining is another important essay-planning tool, but it is not a brainstorming technique. Outlining is an orga-
nizational technique that helps in planning an essay after ideas have been generated through brainstorming.
You’ll learn more about outlining in Lesson 6.
A Note about Outlining
Discuss how sports inﬂuence popular culture.
Practice 2
Use the mapping technique to brainstorm ideas for your answer to this college application essay assignment. Write
your answer on a separate sheet of paper or type it on your computer.
Write an essay that conveys to the reader a sense of who you are.
trends
Leading
sports figures
product
placement
commercial
endorsements
How sports influence
popular culture
television/
media
footwear/
fashion
fashion
industry
fans
41

In Short
To generate ideas for an essay, try asking questions using the 5 W’s: who, what, where, when, and why. Or try a map:
Put your topic in the middle of a page and see your ideas develop in relationship to one another.
42
Use the 5 W’s and mapping techniques for any kind of writing or thinking task this week. For example,
if you need to decide whether to join the drama club or get a part-time job, you can use the 5 W’s tech-
nique to help you come up with the pros and cons for each choice. Similarly, you could use the map-
ping technique to see how taking a part-time job would affect your life.

You’ve done some brainstorming and you’ve generated many ideas. Now, how do you turn those ideas
into an essay?
First, accept that many of those ideas will never go farther than your brainstorming notes. Think
of the brainstorming process of as a type of “rehearsal,” in which you try on different ideas or approaches. You
won’t be able to use them all. Instead, you’ll choose the very best for your “performance”(your essay). Somewhere
in your brainstorming notes is at least one great idea that you can develop into an effective essay.
L E S S O N
Choosing a
Topic and
Developing
a Thesis
LESSON SUMMARY
This lesson explains how to narrow your topic so that it is sufficiently
focused. You’ll also learn how to develop a tentative thesis for your
essay.
5
43

Rules of Thumb for Choosing a Topic
The writing process involves making many decisions. You begin by deciding what to write about. To ensure that
you make a good choice, follow these four rules. The topic you choose must:
1. be interesting to you and your audience
2. fulfill the writing assignment
3. be sufficiently focused
4. be able to be turned into a question
Capturing Interest
The first rule for choosing a topic is simple: Make certain it holds your interest. If it’s not interesting to you, why
would it be to your reader? Your lack of enthusiasm will be evident, and your writing is likely to be dull, dry, and
uninspired as a result. If you are interested in your topic, you can convey that feeling to your reader, no matter
what the subject. Your reader will be drawn in by your lively prose and passionate assertions.
But what if you aren’t really interested in any of the ideas you came up with while brainstorming? What if
the assignment is about a subject you find dull? The challenge in this situation is to find some approach to the topic
that does interest you. For example, your contemporary American politics teacher has asked you to write an essay
about a healthcare policy issue—something you’ve never thought or cared much about. Your first brainstorming
session resulted in a number of ideas, but nothing interesting enough to keep you writing for five pages. In that
case, it makes sense to brainstorm again, using another method.
Before you begin, make a short list of some of the things that do interest you. Even if they seem totally unre-
lated to the subject, you may be able to make a connection. For example, one student listed the following five areas
of interest:
• music
• driving
• snowboarding
• Tom Clancy novels
• the Internet
She then saw several possible connections with her topic, even before brainstorming again. She could write about
healthcare coverage for music therapy, healthcare policy resources on the Internet, or how accident statistics affect
healthcare policies.
Finding a Focus
Essay assignments often ask you to write about a very broad subject area. For example, your topic might be to write
about the Cold War or about a novel you read in class. You can approach such boundless assignments in
many ways.
To write a successful essay, you need to focus your topic. If, for example, you are given the topic of genetic
engineering, you must find a specific issue or idea within that broad topic. Otherwise, you will have enough material
–CHOOSING A TOPIC AND DEVELOPING A THESIS–
44

for a book. You might decide to write about how genetic engineering is used to find cures for diseases, to create
“super” crops, or to plan a family with “designer” children.
In other words, you need to focus your material so it can be adequately covered within the confines of the
essay. If you try to cover too much, you’ll have to briefly mention many subtopics, without delving into the “meat”
of your topic. If your topic is too narrow, though, you’ll run out of ideas in a page or two, and probably fail to meet
the requirements of your assignment.
It may take time to sufficiently focus the topic. Here’s how one student narrowed it down:
Assignment: Write a statement for your generation.
Broad topic: My generation
Narrowed topic: My generation’s beliefs
Further narrowed topic: My generation’s beliefs about work
Sufficiently narrowed topic: My generation’s beliefs about the balance between work and play
It took three steps, but her “sufficiently narrowed topic”has the right level of focus and can be adequately exam-
ined within the essay structure.
Turning Your Topic into a Question
A thesis is the main idea of an essay, and is a response to a topic. In the previous example, the student narrowed
her topic to “my generation’s beliefs about the balance between work and play.”To come up with a thesis, she can
restate that topic in the form of a question: “What are my generation’s beliefs about the balance between work and
play?” The answer to that question might be, “My generation believes that life should be made up of equal parts
of work and play.”
She might never use that sentence in her essay; she could reword it while writing, or after writing, a first draft.
Nevertheless, this exercise gives her a point from which she can launch into writing. Here are two more examples
of the evolution of a tentative thesis from an assignment, a focused topic, and a question.
Assignment: Describe how you think the federal income tax system should be reformed
and why.
Broad topic: Reforming federal tax system
Narrowed topic: Problems with the federal tax system
Further narrowed topic: Inequalities in the federal tax system
Sufficiently narrowed topic: How to eliminate inequalities in the federal tax system
Topic turned into a question: How can we eliminate inequalities in the federal tax system?
Tentative thesis: Instituting a flat tax will eliminate inequalities.
45

Assignment: Write an essay that explores one of the many issues raised in Frankenstein.
Broad topic: An issue in Frankenstein
Narrowed topic: Responsibility
Sufﬁciently narrowed topic: Responsibility of the creator to his creation
Topic turned into a question: What is the responsibility of the creator to his creation?
Tentative thesis: If the creation is a living being, then the creator is responsible for nurturing
and educating his “child.”
When Assignments Ask Questions
Essay assignments that pose a question allow you to quickly formulate a thesis. In fact, they are often called “thesis-
bearing”assignments for that reason. For example:
Television is a powerful medium.What do you think is the ideal place of television in our lives, and why? Explain. How
close is reality to that ideal?
Both questions are thesis bearing. Here is a student’s freewriting response.
I think the ideal place of television is that it should be for information and entertainment, but that it shouldn’t
be watched too much. The reality is far from the ideal because too many people spend too much time watching
TV to the point that they don’t communicate with each other or do things that they should be doing to be phys-
ically and emotionally healthy (examples: exercise or homework).
This answer is a good tentative thesis. It explains how the student feels about the subject, it responds to the assign-
ment, and it is focused.
46

Practice 1
For the following assignment, identify a broad topic, narrow it, and turn it into a question and tentative thesis.
Assignment: Identify a factor that you believe figures strongly in a child’s personality
development. Explain how that factor may influence the child.
Broad topic:
Narrowed topic:
Further narrowed topic:
Sufficiently narrowed topic:
Topic turned into a question:
Tentative thesis:
Practice 2
Return to one of your brainstorming sheets from Lesson 3 or 4. Use the steps outlined in the four rules for choos-
ing a topic, and write a tentative thesis.
47

In Short
To write an effective essay, you need a topic that interests you and fulfills the assignment. It must be sufficiently
focused so the amount of material you will cover can be adequately explored within the confines of an essay. Nar-
row down your topic until you can turn it into a specific question. The answer to this question should serve as
your tentative thesis—the main idea that you will address and develop in your essay.
48
Choose topics and develop tentative thesis statements for the other three brainstorming exercises you
completed in Lessons 3 and 4.

Now that you have a tentative thesis, you may be tempted to jump right in and start drafting. Some-
times, this approach works, especially if you’ve done a lot of brainstorming, have thought care-
fully about your assignment, and your writing skills are strong. More often, however, a great essay
is the product not only of brainstorming, but of organization as well.
The Assertion ➞ Support Structure
Before discussing common organizational strategies, it’s important to consider the underlying structure of essays.
Whether an essay is organized by chronology, comparison and contrast, cause and effect, or some other strategy,
every essay has the same underlying structure: assertion ➞ support. That is, the essay asserts an idea (its thesis)
and then supports the thesis with speciﬁc examples, evidence, and details.
This assertion ➞ support structure is then repeated throughout the essay on many levels. The ideas that pro-
vide support for the thesis (major support) are assertions themselves, and therefore need support. The structure
then looks something like this:
L E S S O N
Outlining and
Organizational
Strategies
LESSON SUMMARY
In this lesson, you’ll learn about the underlying structure of an essay and
how to create an outline. We’ll also examine some of the common orga-
nizational strategies used by essay writers.
6
49

Main idea (thesis)
Major supporting idea
Minor supporting idea
Support
Support
Major supporting idea
Support
The exact underlying structure will vary depending upon the number and type of supporting ideas, but in all its
variations, it is the foundation for most essays.
The Benefits of an Outline
Generating an outline before you draft an essay will help you in several ways. First, it will give structure to your
ideas. By mapping out the order in which those ideas will flow, you create a roadmap for the drafting process. The
roadmap assures that you won’t veer off topic, helps prevent writer’s block, and speeds up drafting.
Second, an outline will help you determine where you need more support for your thesis. When you create
an outline, you’ll be able to see any gaps in the development of your ideas. Strongly supported assertions stand
out in contrast to weaker ones.
Third, an outline will help judge the plausibility of your thesis. If you jump into drafting without organiz-
ing first, you may find during the writing process that your thesis doesn’t hold up. A good outline can help you
revise, modify, and/or strengthen your thesis before you begin writing. Specifically, a good outline will tell you if
your thesis is:
■ too broad. If you have trouble including everything in your outline, you probably have too much to say.
Your thesis needs to be more focused.
■ too narrow. If you can’t seem to find enough to say, your thesis might be too focused. You need to broaden it
to create a viable essay.
■ unreasonable. If there isn’t sufficient evidence to support your thesis, you should reconsider its viability.
You may need to take a different stance.
■ underdeveloped. If you have many gaps in our outline, you may need to do more thinking or research to
find sufficient support.
–OUTLINING AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES–
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Kinds of Outlines
If you have to drive somewhere you’ve never been before, you could just get in the car and start driving, hoping
your sense of direction will be enough to land you at your destination. More likely, though, you will consult a map
and write down some directions. But how carefully should you plan your trip? Do you want to map out each gas
station where you’ll need to fill up, and each rest stop where you’ll get coffee? Or do you simply need a list of route
numbers and turns you’ll need to take?
How thoroughly you map out your trip depends on many different factors, such as your familiarity with the
terrain and the distance you’ll be traveling. The same is true in writing. Do you need a detailed, formal outline
that lists every major and minor supporting idea, or just a rough “scratch”outline? Again, the answer depends upon
several factors, including how comfortable you are with your thesis, how well you follow a structured outline, and
how many ideas you’ve developed through you brainstorming sessions. It also depends upon the writing situa-
tion. During a timed essay exam, you’ll only have time to make a list of paragraphs and, very generally, what you’ll
write about in each one.
Informal Outlines
An informal, rough, or scratch outline is one that lists only the major supporting ideas in the order in which you
think you should develop them. Here’s an example on an informal outline.
Assignment: Evaluate the proposal to replace the current graded income tax system with a flat tax. Should we insti-
tute a flat tax system? Why or why not?
1. Introduction—thesis: A flat tax would be good for the government and for citizens.
2. Problems with current system
3. How flat tax works
4. Benefits of flat tax system
a. for government
b. for citizens
5. Conclusion
This outline provides a general structure for a draft. It’s not very detailed—it doesn’t include the minor sup-
porting ideas or specific examples the essay needs to be fully developed, but it can function well as a roadmap to
guide the writer through a first draft.
51

Formal Outlines
A formaloutline is much more detailed. It includes specific, supporting details and several levels of support. Here’s
a part of a formal outline for the same assignment:
I. Describe problems with the current system.
A. complex
1. tax rates vary greatly
2. too many intricate details
B. unfair
1. deductions, loopholes, special interests
2. people with same income can pay different amount of taxes
C. wasteful
1. different forms for different people
2. huge administrative costs
3. huge compliance costs
4. advising costs
II. How flat tax works
A. all citizens pay same rate—17%—for income over a set minimum
B. all citizens get same personal exemption
C. no breaks for special interest
D. no loopholes
III. Benefits
A. citizens
1. sense of fairness—all treated equally
2. poorest pay no taxes
3. simple to calculate and file
4. families save more
5. more faith in government
6. people will save and invest more
B. government
1. streamline IRS
a. reduce cost
i. fewer employees
ii. less paper, printing, etc.
iii. less auditing costs
2. healthier economy
52

Common Organizational Strategies
Essay organization doesn’t stop, however, with the underlying assertion ➞ support structure and an outline. A
number of effective strategies can organize your information and ideas, comprising a logical, easy-to-understand
flow for your essay.
Chronological/Sequential
One way to organize your material is by chronology, or time sequence. Put ideas in the order in which they hap-
pened, should happen, or will happen. This method works best when you are narrating or describing an experi-
ence, procedure, or process. Imagine writing about the way a bill is passed in Congress, but the steps needed to
complete the process are out of chronological or sequential order. The point or points you are trying to make about
that process will get lost in the ensuing confusion.
Here is a sample rough outline using chronology as its organizing principle.
Assignment: Describe a time when you and a family member experienced a deep sense of conflict or when you sharply
disagreed about an important issue. What caused the conflict? What was the outcome? Have your feelings about the
matter changed or remained the same? Explain.
Tentative thesis: When I decided to become a vegetarian, my parents refused to support me. It was very difficult to
stick to my decision—but I’m glad I did.
Rough outline:
1. telling my family
2. their reactions
3. trying to explain my reasons
4. flashback: taking the “virtual tour” of the slaughterhouse on the Web
5. offering to take my family on the tour, but only Wei watching it with me
6. Mom and Dad refusing to cook special meals for me
7. learning to cook for myself
8. Wei accepting my decision and trying some vegetarian meals with me
9. Wei giving up meat too
10. Mom and Dad accepting our decision and supporting us
Practice 1
On a separate sheet of paper or your computer, create an outline using chronology as your organizational prin-
ciple. Your outline can be rough or formal. Use one of your brainstorms from Lesson 3 or 4, or one of the brain-
storms provided as an example to create your outline.
53

Whenever you write about cause and effect, keep in mind that most events have more than one cause, and most
actions generate more than one effect.
Cause and Effect
Another way to organize ideas is using cause and effect. This method works in either direction:
1. cause ➞ effect: what happened (cause) and what happened as a result (effect)
2. effect ➞ cause: what happened (effect) and why it happened (cause)
Like chronology, cause and effect can be the main organizational structure or it can be used to organize a
specific part. It can also be used in combination with other organizing principles. For example, if your assignment
were to discuss the events that led to World War I, you would probably use cause and effect as well as chronology
to organize your ideas.
Here’s part of an outline for an essay about the effects of the Industrial Revolution on city life.
Industries moved to cities
Large influx of working class from rural areas—looking for jobs
Crowded, unsanitary conditions
Children in the streets (unsupervised) or working in factories (uneducated)
Demand for more hospitals, police, sanitation, social services
Spatial
Ideas can also be organized according to spatial principles, from top to bottom, side to side, or inside to outside,
for example. This organizational method is particularly useful when you are describing an item or a place. You’d
use this strategy to describe the structure of an animal or plant, the room where an important even took place,
or a place that is important to you.
The key to using spatial organization effectively is to move around the space or object logically. You are using
words to relate something that exists physically or visually, and must help your reader understand your ideas. Don’t
jump around. What follows is a rough outline for an essay using the spatial organizing principle. The student works
from the outside of a cell to the inside as she describes its structure:
Structure of an animal cell:
1. Plasma membrane
a. isolates cytoplasm
b. regulates flow of materials between cytoplasm and environment
c. allows interaction with other cells
54
Note about Cause and Effect

2. Cytoplasm
a. contains water, salt, enzymes, proteins
b. also contains organelles like mitochondria
3. Nuclear envelope
a. protects nucleus
4. Nucleus
a. contains cell’s DNA
Practice 2
On a separate sheet of paper or your computer, create an outline using either the cause and effect or spatial organ-
izing principle. Your outline can be formal or informal. Use one of your brainstorms from Lesson 3 or 4, or one
of the brainstorms provided as an example to create your outline.
In Short
Organizing your ideas to create an effective essay is done on a number of different levels. Underlying all essays is
the assertion ➞ support structure. For every idea or assertion you make, you need to provide examples, evidence,
and details as support. An outline provides a roadmap that not only helps you in the drafting process, but also
lets you see where your ideas may need more development or support. Within the outline, ideas can be arranged
using a number of strategies. Chronology or time sequence, cause and effect, and spatial arrangements should be
chosen and employed based on the type of information you are writing about.
55
In a well-organized essay, the writer’s organizing principle should be very clear. Find an essay that
appears to be organized by chronology, cause and effect, or spatial principles. Develop an outline from
the text so you can see the organizational structure clearly.

In the previous lesson, you learned ways to organize ideas according to time and space. Now, you’ll exam-
ine four additional principles of organization:
1. analysis/classiﬁcation
2. order of importance
3. comparison and contrast
4. problem ➞ solution
Analysis/Classification
Some essays are best organized by arranging ideas, items, or events by their characteristics or functions. The fol-
lowing assignment is broad enough to describe many different strategies.
L E S S O N
More
Organizational
Strategies
LESSON SUMMARY
This lesson describes four more organizational strategies for essays:
analysis/classification, order of importance, comparison and contrast,
and problem ➞ solution.
7
57

Plants and animals protect themselves in many different ways. Describe the various strategies organisms have devel-
oped for protection.
It makes sense to group similar strategies together and organize your essay by type (classification). A for-
mal outline to address the assignment might look like this:
I. Appearance
A. camouflage
1. moths
2. flounder
3. walking stick
B. warning colors
1. monarch butterfly
2. coral snake
3. South American poisonous frog
C. mimicry
1. king snake resembling coral snake
2. swallowtail butterfly larva resembling snake
3. snowberry fly resembling jumping spider
II. Chemicals
A. smoke
1. squid
2. octopus
B. smells
1. skunks
2. others?
C. poisons
1. spiders
2. snakes
3. bombardier beetles
III. Armor
A. spikes, thorns
1. roses and thistles
2. sea urchins
3. porcupines
B. shells, hard coverings
1. nuts
2. beetles
3. turtles
–MORE ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES–
58

Notice how the protective strategies are first classified into three categories: appearance, chemicals, and armor.
Each of these categories is then further classified for analysis. Appearance, for example, is broken down into three
types of protection strategies: camouflage, warning colors, and mimicry.
Order of Importance
One of the most frequently used organizational strategies, order of importance is often the main organizing prin-
ciple of an essay. Even when it’s not, it’s used in individual sections and paragraphs. It works in both directions,
as cause and effect does. You can begin with the most important, and work toward the least, or begin with the least
important, and finish with the most.
Most important generally means most supportive, most convincing, or most striking. For example, the outline
you just read lists several protection strategies. While the overall organizing principle is analysis/classification, most
sections within that larger structure are also organized by order of importance. Look again at the section on
appearance:
I. Appearance
A. camouflage
1. moths
2. flounder
3. walking stick
B. warning colors
1. monarch butterfly
2. coral snake
3. South American poisonous frog
C. mimicry
1. king snake resembling coral snake
2. swallowtail butterfly larva resembling snake
3. snowberry fly resembling jumping spider
“Appearance”is one of the essays’ major supporting ideas. The three minor supporting ideas—camouflage,
warning colors, and mimicry—are listed in order of importance. Camouflage is the most common and least sophis-
ticated of the three, whereas mimicry is the most unique and most compelling way that animals use appearance
to protect themselves. And for each of these three supporting ideas, three specific examples are provided. Again,
they are listed in order of importance, from the least striking example to the most compelling.
Whenever you’re building an argument (and in most essays, that’s exactly what you’re doing), it’s most effec-
tive to start with the least important idea and move to the most important. A good argument is like a snowball
rolling down a hill. It builds momentum and strength as it rolls, one idea building upon another. And because
you’re working to convince readers that your assertions are valid, it helps to use this structure. In many cases, your
least important ideas are probably also the least controversial and easiest to accept. It makes sense to begin with
those that your reader will most likely agree with, and build the reader’s trust and acceptance as you work toward
more difficult concepts.
59

Practice 1
On a separate sheet of paper or your computer, create an outline using analysis/classification or order of impor-
tance as your organizing principle. Your outline can be formal or informal. Use one of your own brainstorms from
Lesson 3 or 4, or one of the brainstorms provided as an example.
Comparison and Contrast
Essays that show the similarities and differences between two or more ideas use the comparison and contrast orga-
nizational strategy. This strategy depends upon first having comparable ideas or items. For example, you’d have
difficulty writing a successful essay if you wanted to compare Frankenstein’s creature with Cinderella. Franken-
stein’s creature and Pinocchio, on the other hand, are comparable items—they’re both beings that someone else
brought to life. Often, comparable items have a number of aspects that may be compared and contrasted. You might
compare and contrast the creation of the figures, their creator’s reactions after they come to life, and/or their rela-
tionships with their creators.
After you’ve selected the aspects you’ll compare and contrast, there are two ways to organize your discus-
sion: the block technique and the point-by-point technique.
The Block Technique
This method organizes ideas by item (A and B). First, discuss all the aspects of item A (ideas 1, 2, and 3). Then,
discuss all of the corresponding aspects of item B. The result is two “blocks”of text—a section about item A, and
one about item B. For example:
(A = Pinocchio; B = Frankenstein’s creature)
A1—Pinocchio’s creation
A2—Geppetto’s reaction
A3—Relationship between Pinocchio and Geppetto
B1—The creature’s creation
B2—Frankenstein’s reaction
B3—Relationship between the creature and Frankenstein
The Point-by-Point Technique
In this method, you organize ideas by aspect (1, 2, 3) rather than by item, so the result is a direct comparison and
contrast of each aspect. Because you put each aspect side by side, readers get to see exactly how the two items meas-
ure up, element by element. This is a more sophisticated way of organizing a comparison and contrast essay, and
it’s easier for your reader to follow. Here’s a sample outline.
60

A1—Pinocchio’s creation
B1—The creature’s creation
A2—Geppetto’s reaction
B2—Frankenstein’s reaction
A3—Relationship between Pinocchio and Geppetto
B3—Relationship between the creature and Frankenstein
Problem ➞ Solution
In this organizing principle, you first identify a problem, and then offer a solution. There is no room for flexibil-
ity, because it won’t make sense to your reader to offer the solution to a problem without first revealing or dis-
cussing that problem. Here’s the “solution”section of an outline for an essay about the problem of misinformation
on the Internet.
III. Solution
A. Create “reliability index”
1. ranks sites for level of credibility
2. run by not-for-profit; perhaps university or consortium of universities
3. organization would rate websites on scale of trustworthiness (fact-check, etc.)
a. Priorities
i. sites offering information about health and healthcare
ii. sites offering information about raising children (education, emotional, social
development)
iii. sites offering information about finances and investments
B. Run awareness campaign
1. public service announcements
2. lessons in schools
3. announcements by all Internet providers
Practice 2
On a separate sheet of paper or your computer, create an outline using comparison and contrast or problem ➞
solution as your organizing principle. Your outline can be formal or informal. Use one of your own brainstorms
from Lesson 3 or 4, or one of the brainstorms provided as an example.
61

In Short
Analysis, order of importance, comparison and contrast, and problem ➞ solution are four more strategies to help
organize your ideas. One strategy can serve as an overall organizing principle, while others may help you organ-
ize individual paragraphs and sections of your essay.
62
Look for an essay that uses the analysis/classiﬁcation, comparison and contrast, order of importance,
or problem ➞ solution strategy. Work backward from the text to create an outline that delineates the
organizing structure.

63
S E C T I O N
2 Drafting
the Essay
Now that you’ve done some planning, you’re warmed up and ready to
run. The lessons in this section will show you how to draft a successful
essay, from introduction to conclusion. You’ll learn how to support your
ideas with evidence and details, and how to make arguments that are more convincing.

The planning steps in Section 1 have led you to the next stage in the process, writing a rough draft. You
broke down the assignment, brainstormed ideas, focused your topic, developed a tentative thesis, and
sketched an outline. All of that work has provided a framework that you can now ﬂesh out with sen-
tences and paragraphs that bring your ideas to your audience.
What Is Drafting?
To draft means to create a preliminary version or rough form of a text. Preliminary and rough are the key words.
Like brainstorming, drafting is most effective when you allow yourself to write imperfectly. Unless you’re writ-
ing a timed essay exam, such as for the SAT or ACT, your essay will take ﬁnal shape after revising. (And even the
graders of those timed essays exams make it clear that they’re looking for a “polished rough draft,” not a perfect
piece of writing.) The point of drafting is to get your ideas on paper within the framework you created in the plan-
ning stages, but without the pressure of trying to get it exactly right.
L E S S O N
Thesis
Statements
and the
Drafting Process
LESSON SUMMARY
In this lesson, you’ll learn how to create a rough draft from your brain-
storming notes. You’ll also find out how to craft a strong thesis
statement.
8
65

Instead of staring at a blank piece of paper, at your outline, and then back at the paper, get writing. It’s espe-
cially important not to waste time trying to write an eloquent, attention-grabbing introduction. The best intro-
ductions are typically written after the body of the essay, when your ideas and the manner in which you reveal them
are on paper. That’s why the lesson on introductions doesn’t appear until after the lessons on writing good para-
graphs and providing support for your ideas and assertions.
Tips for the Drafting Process
Use the following guidelines to help keep your ideas flowing during the drafting stage:
■ Keep your thesis statement and assignment in front of you at all times. This will keep you focused on what
your essay needs to do.
■ Follow your outline, but be flexible. Don’t feel obligated to stick to your original plan if, as you’re writing,
you come up with a better order of paragraphs, or a new idea.
■ Save your drafts. Whether they’re on paper or on the computer, keep a copy of every version of your essay.
(That means, on the computer, you will need to make a copy of your draft into a new document before
revising.) You may find that an idea you thought you weren’t going to use will have a place in your essay
after all.
Practice 1
Briefly describe your typical writing process. How have you handled drafting in the past? What can you do to make
drafting more productive?
66
■ Don’t know what to say? Try one of the brainstorming techniques described in Lessons 3 and 4.
■ Don’t know where to begin? Create an outline. This will help you put your ideas in order and give you a
road map to follow.
■ Can’t think of the right way to start? Skip the introduction and instead jump into the body of your essay.
Once you know where you’re going and what you have to say, come back and create an effective
introduction.
Tips on Overcoming Writer’s Block

Drafting a Thesis Statement
While you don’t need to start with an introduction, you should have a thesis statement before you begin draft-
ing. Your thesis is the main idea of your essay—it succinctly reveals what you’re going to say. In Lesson 5, you
learned how to narrow your topic and formulate a tentative thesis. Now, you’ll either commit to that thesis, or revise
it into a workable thesis statement.
Here are a few more considerations:
1. A good thesis statement makes a strong, clear assertion that conveys your attitude about the subject.
No assertion: The School of Rock is about a substitute teacher.
Mild assertion: The School of Rock is an entertaining film about an influential substitute teacher.
Strong assertion: The School of Rock is about how a substitute teacher uses the transformative power of
rock and roll to help his students and himself.
2. A good thesis statement strikes the right balance between too broad and too narrow. It needs to be focused
enough to encompass just enough material to cover within the spatial confines of the essay, and narrow
enough to include enough material that can be supported by evidence.
Too broad: Animals have developed many strategies for survival.
Some focus: Animals have developed many strategies to protect themselves.
Focused: Many animals have developed physical properties that serve to protect them from
predators.
Too narrow: In “The Open Boat,” the repetition of “If I am going to be drowned” conveys Crane’s
theme of the indifference of nature.
Balanced: In “The Open Boat,” Crane uses several stylistic techniques to convey his theme of the
indifference of nature.
3. A thesis statement is not simply an announcement of the subject matter. You need to tell readers what you
are going to say about your subject.
Announcement: This paper will discuss some of the erroneous theories about the causes of the Great
Depression.
Thesis statement: The Great Depression was caused neither by the stock market crash of 1929 nor the
Smoot Hawley Tariff Act.
–THESIS STATEMENTS AND THE DRAFTING PROCESS–
67

Admissions officers typically spend about three to four minutes on each application essay. They’re not bound
by any rule that says they have to read each one from start to finish. The best way to guarantee a full read and
a better chance that your essay will help the admissions officer put your application in the “yes” pile is to hook
the reader, and only gradually reveal your subject. If you hand your subject, and your treatment of that subject,
to him or her in the opening paragraph, you’re providing a great reason to stop reading.
4. A thesis statement is not simply a question or list of questions. You still need to tell your reader what idea
you are going to develop in your essay (the answer to one or more of your questions).
Question: Why did Kafka choose to turn Gregor into a giant beetle?
Thesis statement: Gregor’s transformation into a giant beetle is a powerful symbol representing his indus-
trious nature and his role in his family both before and after his transformation.
5. A thesis statement is not simply a statement of fact. It must be an assertion that conveys your ideas about
the subject.
Statement of fact: There are many important similarities between the Perrault and Grimm versions of
Little Red Riding Hood.
Thesis statement: Both the Perrault and Grimm Brothers versions of Little Red Riding Hood reveal the
authors’ negative attitudes toward women.
Where Your Thesis Statement Belongs
While there is no rule that states exactly where you should place your thesis statement, because it helps your reader
by identifying your purpose, it should appear within the first or second paragraph of your essay. You want your
reader to know before they read too much what idea you will develop. Think of it this way: Imagine someone you
don’t know calls you on the phone. After she introduces herself, you expect that she’ll tell you why she’s calling.
What does she want? If she doesn’t tell you, you could become annoyed, suspicious, and even angry. You deserve
the courtesy of an explanation, and so does your reader. That explanation is your thesis statement.
While you should have a good working thesis statement to lead you through your draft, it’s important to
remember that even that statement is a draft. It’s your preliminary version, and as you write, you may find you
need to revise it. Be flexible. It makes more sense to revise it based on what you’ve written (if the writing works)
than to revise a decent draft to fit your thesis.
68
The College Admissions Essay Difference

Practice 2
Revise and improve the following weak thesis statements.
1. In this essay, I will explain why I want to attend Briarwood College.
2. The death penalty is a controversial issue.
3. This novel had an important impact on my life.
4. What would the consequences of censorship on the Internet be?
In Short
Drafts are rough versions of your essay—a chance to get ideas on paper so you can shape them into an effective
essay. To get started, draft a thesis statement that makes a strong assertion about your subject. Be sure it’s focused
and avoid simply making an announcement, asking a question or stating a fact.
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Read a couple of essays and look for their thesis statements. How do the authors convey their main
idea? Where is the thesis statement located?

Imagine opening a novel and seeing that the entire text is one giant paragraph. How would you feel? You’d
probably feel overwhelmed and more than a little annoyed with the author. Why didn’t he break the text
into paragraphs? How are you going to know when he shifts from idea to idea? How inconsiderate!
Paragraphs are so central to good writing that we tend to take them for granted. Nevertheless, it’s worth
reviewing their function and recognizing the important beneﬁts they provide.
What Are Paragraphs?
By deﬁnition, a paragraph is one or more sentences about a single idea. They’re also one of a writer’s most impor-
tant tools. They divide the text into manageable pieces of information, and lead the reader by signaling the intro-
duction of new ideas.
L E S S O N
Paragraphs and
Topic Sentences
LESSON SUMMARY
In this lesson, you’ll learn about topic sentences and paragraphing for-
mats. With that knowledge, you’ll be able to craft great paragraphs.
9
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Like essays, paragraphs generally have three parts:
1. a beginning that introduces the topic of the paragraph and often expresses the main idea of that paragraph
in a topic sentence
2. a body that develops and supports the main idea
3. a conclusion that expresses the main idea, if it was expressed in the introduction; offers concluding
thoughts about that topic; and/or offers a transition to the next paragraph
Here’s an example of a complete paragraph:
The African country of the Democratic Republic of Congo has had a turbulent past. It was colonized by Belgium in
the late nineteenth century and officially declared a Belgian territory by King Leopold in 1895. The country, called the
Belgian Congo after 1908, was under Belgian rule for 65 years. Then, in 1960, after several years of unrest, Congo was
granted independence from Belgium. The country was unstable for several years. Two presidents were elected and
deposed, and there was much arguing over who should run the country and how. Finally, in 1965, a man named Mobutu
Sese Seko rose to power. Though the country was remarkably rich in resources such as diamonds, under Sese Seko’s rule,
the people lived in complete squalor. Still, Sese Seko brought some stability to the region. He ruled for 32 years, until
the people finally rebelled in 1997.
The first sentence in the paragraph introduced the topic and expressed its main idea; it is the paragraph’s
topic sentence. The next seven sentences develop and support that idea. Then, the last two sentences conclude the
paragraph well. They remind readers of the main idea (the country’s unstable past) and lead them into the next
paragraph by introducing the 1997 rebellion that removed Sese Seko from power.
Developing Strong Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the essay in microcosm. Just as an essay is driven by one main idea (its thesis), a good paragraph
is also held together by one controlling idea. This idea is usually stated in a topic sentence.
Topic Sentences
Topic sentences are like mini thesis statements. Just as your thesis statement expressed the main idea of your essay,
topic sentences express the main idea of each paragraph. Like a thesis, the main idea must:
1. make an assertion about the subject. This assertion can be fact or opinion. Here are examples of each:
Fact: Another strategy plants and animals use to protect themselves is mimicry.
Opinion: The most interesting strategy plants and animals have developed for protection is mimicry.
2. be general enough to encompass all of the ideas in the paragraph. If it isn’t, you’re probably trying to cover
too much material in the paragraph.
–PARAGRAPHS AND TOPIC SENTENCES–
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It’s logical to begin a paragraph with the topic sentence, but there’s no rule compelling you to place it there.
There are different ways to lay out an argument within a paragraph, and depending on the one you use, your topic
sentence might be better as the last line, rather than the first.
Deductive and Inductive Formats
The two most common ways to organize paragraphs are based on logical reasoning strategies. Does it make more
sense, given your subject, to present a general idea first, and then support it with specific supporting evidence and
examples? Or would it be better to begin with the evidence and examples, and come to a conclusion that’s drawn
from it?
Deductive Paragraphs
A deductive paragraph follows the former example: It begins with the main argument or claim being made about
the subject, and concludes with the supporting evidence and details. Here’s an example:
I could tell the test results just by the look on his face. He couldn’t bring himself to look at me. The blood had drained
from his face and he was pale as china. He tried to smile, but the corners of his mouth refused to cooperate. His shoul-
ders dropped and his whole body seemed to buckle under the weight of the news, as if he’d already given up his fight
against the disease.
Notice how the paragraph begins with a topic sentence that expresses the main idea—that his look revealed
the test result. The rest of the paragraph gives specific details and his expression and body language “prove” that
main idea. This general structure also works well for an entire essay.
Inductive Paragraphs
Inductively organized paragraphs begin with the specifics and lead to a general idea. That’s why the topic sentence
in this type of paragraph comes last—it expresses the conclusion or argument that’s been proven by the build up
of evidence. For example:
All day, he emptied cartons of CDs. Disc after disc, he sorted them by category, and then by artist. After loading them
on a cart, he wheeled them to the racks, and refilled the store’s stock in alphabetical order. He knew no one would eas-
ily find the music they were looking for without him doing his job, but that satisfaction did little to relieve his boredom.
This paragraph starts with evidence. Then, in a topic sentence at the end, the writer offers the conclusion she has
drawn from that evidence.
Of course, not all paragraphs will fit so neatly into the general ➞ specific or specific ➞ general formats and
not all paragraphs will have the topic sentence first or last. But the inductive and deductive formats work for most
paragraphs, and form the backbone of paragraphing strategy.
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Appropriate Paragraph Lengths
There’s no specific rule about how long a paragraph should be, but you can follow some guidelines to make your writ-
ing easier to read and understand. Long paragraphs are hard on the eye. If you’ve written a page or more without a
paragraph break, take a careful look at your ideas. Can they be broken up logically into two or more paragraphs? To
be reader friendly, a typical typed page should have at least one, but preferably, two to four paragraph breaks.
Very short paragraphs look undeveloped, like incomplete thoughts. They should only be used if you have a
sentence (or two) that is important enough to be on its own. A one-sentence paragraph has impact. It stands out
visually, and the pauses before and after the sentence give more time for it to sink in and take hold. However, one-
or two-sentence paragraphs should be used sparingly—no more than one per page, if that often.
Here’s the Congo paragraph again, revised to include a very short paragraph:
The African country of the Democratic Republic of Congo has had a turbulent past. It was colonized by Belgium in
the late nineteenth century and officially declared a Belgian territory by King Leopold in 1895. The country, called the
Belgian Congo after 1908, was under Belgian rule for 65 years. Then, in 1960, after several years of unrest, Congo was
granted independence from Belgium.
But independence came at a price.
For the next five years, the Congo experienced political and social turmoil.Two presidents were elected and deposed,
and there was much arguing over who should run the country and how. Finally, in 1965, a man named Mobutu Sese
Seko rose to power. Though the country was remarkably rich in resources such as diamonds, under Sese Seko’s rule,
the people lived in complete squalor. Still, Sese Seko brought some stability to the region. He ruled for 32 years, until
the people finally rebelled in 1997.
Notice how conspicuous the second paragraph is. By allowing it to stand alone, the writer has made even clearer
her emphasis on the cost of independence for the Republic of Congo.
Practice 1
Divide the following text into paragraphs. Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph you create.
Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, made many contributions to the science of psychology. One of his great-
est contributions was his theory of the personality. According to Freud, the human personality is made up of three parts:
the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the part of the personality that exists only in the subconscious. According to
Freud, the id has no direct contact with the reality. It is the innermost core of our personality and operates according
to the pleasure principle. That is, it seeks immediate gratification for its desires, regardless of external realities or con-
sequences. It is not even aware that external realities or consequences exist. The ego develops from the id and is the part
of the personality in contact with the real world. The ego is conscious and therefore aims to satisfy the subconscious
desire of the id as best it can within the individual’s environment. When it can’t satisfy those desires, it tried to con-
trol or suppress the id. The ego functions according to the reality principle. The superego is the third and final part of
the personality to develop. This part of the personality contains our moral values and ideals, our notion of what’s right
and wrong.The superego gives us the“rules” that help the ego control the id. For example, a child wants a toy that belongs
to another child (id). He checks his environment to see if it’s possible to take that toy (ego). He can, and does. Then,
he remembers that it’s wrong to take something that belongs to someone else (superego) and returns the toy.
74

Practice 2
On a separate piece of paper or on your computer, write topic sentences for the following paragraphs. Make at
least one paragraph deductive (place the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph) and at least one para-
graph inductive (place the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph).
1. The government’s Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports that employment in child daycare services will
grow over 300% in the next decade. In 2002, about 750,000 people worked in child daycare services. By
2012, that number is expected to be about 1,050,000—an increase of more than 300,000 jobs.
2. When I was in kindergarten, I wanted to be an astronaut. When I was in junior high school, I wanted to be
a doctor. When I was in high school, I wanted to be a teacher. Today, I’m 35 and I’m a firefighter.
3. The proposed tax referendum will not reduce taxes for middle income families. In fact, middle income
families with children will pay 10% more per year, and families without children will pay 20% more. Fur-
ther, the referendum actually decreases taxes for the wealthiest tax bracket. In fact, taxpayers in the highest
income bracket will pay 10% less per year if the referendum is passed.
In Short
A paragraph is a group of sentences about one idea. That idea is typically expressed in a topic sentence. Deduc-
tive paragraphs begin with the topic sentence and then provide specific examples and evidence as support.
Inductive paragraphs begin with the examples and evidence and then state the main idea in a topic sentence. Avoid
long paragraphs, which are hard on the eye and often difficult to follow. Use one- or two-sentence paragraphs spar-
ingly, to make an important idea stand out.
75
Choose an essay from one of the collections suggested in the Additional Resources section at the end
of the book, or a textbook you use in class. As you read, pay particular attention to paragraphing. When
does the writer begin new paragraphs? Why? Can you identify the topic sentence? Do you recognize
inductive or deductive formats?

In Lesson 1, the word friendly was used to describe the “general reader.”It’s important to think of your reader
this way, because when you write for a friendly audience, you won’t be tempted to employ an unnecessar-
ily adversarial or defensive tone. But friendly doesn’t mean that the reader will accept everything and any-
thing you say. Unsubstantiated assertions will be questioned, and evidence will be required.
An essay is an explanation, not just of what you think, but of why you think it. The why comprises many
types of support, including evidence, examples, and details. Most types of support are in one of six categories:
1. speciﬁc examples
2. facts
3. reasons
4. descriptions and anecdotes
5. expert opinion and analysis
6. quotations from the text
L E S S O N
Providing
Support
LESSON SUMMARY
Your thesis is as important as the evidence that supports it. This les-
son describes six different strategies for supporting your assertions.
10
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The boundaries of these categories are not absolute; an anecdote is often an example, and a reason can also
be a fact. However, the categories are useful for discussing types of support and illustrating how to substantiate
your assertions in a variety of ways.
Specific Examples
Specific examples comprise the broadest category of evidence. Such an example offers something tangible to the
reader; it is a person, place, or thing that exemplifies your idea. Let’s examine the following statement:
Movies often portray the American suburb as a place of false happiness and hidden misery. But this is an unfair and
inaccurate depiction.
This thesis has two ideas that need support: the portrayal of the American suburb as a place of false happiness and
hidden misery, and that this depiction is unfair and inaccurate. You could cite films such as American Beauty and
The Ice Storm as specific examples.
But examples can’t simply be mentioned. To support your thesis, you’ll need to demonstrate that both films
portray the American suburb in precisely this negative way. You could begin this demonstration with a summary
of the plot (remember, you shouldn’t assume that a general reader has the same knowledge as you), and then offer
the following specific examples as evidence:
■ the Burnhams’ home and neighborhood
■ Mrs. Burnham’s obsession with appearance
■ the breakdown of the Burnhams’ marriage
■ Mr. Burnham’s rebellion against the status quo
■ Jane Burnham’s hatred of her parents
■ Mrs. Fitts’ comatose state
Specific examples like these provide concrete evidence of your assertions. They make your claim “real” for your
reader.
Facts
The next form of support must be differentiated from opinion.
A fact is:
something known for certain to have happened
something known for certain to be true
something known for certain to exist
–PROVIDING SUPPORT–
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Statistics may seem like the most uncontestable kind of fact—after all, numbers are objective. But numbers can
be, and often are, manipulated in many ways, including being taken out of context. Alert readers will want to
see the source of your statistics to be sure the figures are unbiased. We’ll explore this issue further in Lesson 11.
An opinion is:
something believed to have happened
something believed to be true
something believed to exist
Facts are what we know; they are objective and therefore do not change from person to person. Opinions are what
we believe; they are subjective and debatable, and they often change from person to person. Because facts are objec-
tive, they’re particularly valuable as evidence in an essay, especially when your thesis is controversial.
Facts include statistics, definitions, recorded statements, and observations. For example, a writer is draft-
ing an essay assessing the flat tax from her outline (Lesson 6). Here is her thesis:
A flat tax would be good for the government and for citizens.
To support it, she could include the following facts:
■ The IRS publishes 480 different tax forms.
■ The IRB publishes 280 different tax forms to explain those 480 tax forms.
■ The body of the tax law has 7.05 million words—ten times the number of words in the Bible.
■ The cost of income tax compliance is over $1.3 billion a year (some sources estimate the cost as high as $2
billion).
Practice 1
Choose one of the essays for which you developed an outline in Lesson 6 or 7. List at least four supporting ideas
for your thesis. Include at least one specific example and at least one fact.
79
A Note about Statistics

Reasons
For many essays, the best way to support your thesis is to explain why you think the way you do. That explana-
tion will lay out your reasons—some will be facts, others will be opinions. The key to this type of support is logic.
Your reasons must be based on evidence or good common sense. That is, they must be logical.
To meet that standard, many reasons need considerable support. They can’t simply be stated with an expec-
tation that the audience will believe them. Here is another thesis:
School officials should not be allowed to randomly search students’ lockers and backpacks.
For support, the following reasons could be used:
■ These searches violate the right to privacy.
■ Searches should not be done randomly, but only when there is a suspected violation.
Both of these reasons are opinions, and they need support to be convincing. The writer must use evidence to
show that these opinions are logical and reasonable. To support the first reason, he could define the right to pri-
vacy (a combination of specific examples, facts, and description); he could provide an example or describe a cer-
tain situation where a search led to a violation of privacy (specific example, anecdote); and provide expert opinion.
To support the second assertion, he could explore the idea that “random searches” can lead to profiling of
who is searched, and that without a suspected violation, everyone then becomes a suspect unless otherwise
cleared of a violation; and provide expert opinion.
Of course, people’s reasons for believing certain things are often very personal and highly debatable. While
it’s fine—and often effective—to use emotional arguments to convince your readers, the more logical your rea-
sons, the more effective they will be as support.
Description and Anecdotes
Evidence and support can also come in the form of short stories or descriptions that illustrate a point. Descrip-
tions and anecdotes are effective evidence—especially in essays about people—because they help the reader
form a picture that illuminates your ideas. In the following thesis, the writer addresses a college application essay
topic:
The person I admire most is my sister. I call her Wonder Woman. A professional who copes daily with the most
stressful and potentially depressing situations, she is the strongest person I know.
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The best kind of support for this essay will be description and anecdote—a series of “snapshots”and stories that
illustrate the sister’s strength. Here’s an example:
Amy’s job with the Division of Youth and Family Services is incredibly stressful. Every day for the past five years,
she has visited families who are struggling with addiction, abuse, poverty, and hopelessness. One family has been
“in the system” for a decade, cycling through the same problems without resolution. But instead of burning out,
Amy’s compassion and resolve have increased. She visits this family weekly, and is available to them almost 24
hours a day if a crisis arises. Once, she was awakened at three in the morning when the teenager in this family
failed to come home. She got in her car and drove to their apartment, then called the police and helped them
file a missing persons report. And this is just one family under her watch.
Similarly, to support the assertions that searches of students’ lockers and backpacks should not be allowed,
you could describe a search in which a student was unfairly accused and blamed for a crime. The following descrip-
tion appeared in a law journal article about such as case:
Wearing an orange prison jumpsuit and flip-flops, Sam Mazza looked dejected as he made his first court appearance.
He was facing three years in prison for a crime he says was intended as a private joke. His spirits appeared to lift, how-
ever, when his attorney carefully laid out his case: The search of every locker in the school was unconstitutional.When
Mazza’s principal ordered the search, he was in violation of the “reasonable suspicion” component of legal searches.
Since the note about a bomb threat (Mazza contends it was a joke) was found during an illegal search, the case had
to be dropped. Mazza sat taller in his seat and smiled at his parents when his attorney concluded his remarks.
Expert Opinion and Analysis
During a trial, lawyers often call upon expert witnesses to help them make their case. These witnesses were not
involved in the crime, but they have expertise that can help the jurors determine the guilt or innocence of the defen-
dant. Similarly, in many essays, and particularly in research papers, much of your support will come in the form
of expert opinion and analysis. The experts you call upon can help you demonstrate the validity of your thesis.
You can collect expert opinion and analysis in two ways: by interviewing sources yourself (primary research)
or by finding print or other recorded sources of expert opinion or analysis (secondary research). Sources of sec-
ondary research include the Internet, periodicals, journals, books, and transcripts.
81
When writing a college application essay, remember that regardless of the topic, the essay needs to reveal some-
thing personal about you. Writing an essay about your sister in response to the prompt “Indicate a person who
has had a significant influence on you, and describe that influence” is fine. However, you need to avoid the
common pitfall of that prompt, which is to write about the person, and not about yourself. The writer of the sis-
ter essay needs to relate her sister’s story to herself, not simply explain why her sister is the person she
admires most.
A Word of Advice

The strength of expert opinion and analysis as evidence comes from the fact that your sources are experts.
They’ve spend a great deal of time studying the issue or experiencing the phenomenon you’re describing. In some
cases, they know the issue far better that you or your readers do.
That’s why you must give the credentials of any cited expert. It is not good to quote the author of Jane Austen:
The Ultimate Readers’ Guide on his opinions about Pride and Prejudice if you don’t mention his book. This also
helps avoid plagiarism. For another example, recall the flat tax essay. Its assertions could be supported with the
following expert sources and their opinions:
■ Dr. Alan Auerbach, professor of Economics at the University of California of Berkeley and former chief economist
at the Joint Committee on Taxation, estimates that the average family of four will have $3,000 more in income
per year with a flat tax.
■ The Tax Foundation, a nonprofit tax think tank, estimates that America spends $140 billion complying with the
current tax code—a cost that would be reduced 94% by instituting a flat tax.
Be certain to give enough identifying information about each expert source to convince your reader of the
importance of his or her opinion.
Quotations from the Text
When your essay is about literature, much of your evidence will come from the text itself. For example, imagine
that you’ve written the following thesis statement:
In his poem “Splinter,” Carl Sandburg uses metaphor and sound to suggest loss.
To support your assertion, you will need to discuss the poem’s content, structure, and style. But that’s only part
of the task. In addition to telling the readers why you think what you do about the poem, you also need to show
them the evidence that led you to your conclusion. Thus, you can tell readers that the poem suggests loss by the
repetition of the short i sound, known as a phonetic intensive, in line 4 (thin, splinter, singing). You can also explain
how metaphor is used to emphasize the same theme, and show evidence by quoting the last line, which describes
the voice of the last cricket by comparing it to a thin splinter.
The voice of the last cricket
across the first frost
is one kind of good-by.
It is so thin a splinter of singing.
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Practice 2
Provide support for another essay outlined in Lesson 6 or 7, or add more support to the essay you used for Prac-
tice 1 in this lesson. List four supporting ideas, using at least two of the following types of evidence: reasons, descrip-
tions or anecdotes, expert opinion and analysis, or quotations from the text.
In Short
Like lawyers in a courtroom trial, essay writers need to provide evidence for their assertions. That evidence can
come in the form of speciﬁc examples, facts, reasons, descriptions and anecdotes, expert opinion and analysis, and
quotations from the text.
83
Read an opinion piece on the editorial page of today’s newspaper. How does the author support his or
her ideas? What kind of evidence does he or she provide? After you read the piece, keep it handy
because you’ll need to use it again in Lesson 11.

Most essays are exercises in persuasive writing. You may want to persuade your reader to change
his or her point of view, support a specific cause, or agree with your opinion. In an SAT or ACT
essay, your goal is to convince the scorer that you can write well. For a college application, your
essay needs to persuade the admissions officer to accept you. On a more general level, because essays are built on
the assertion ➞ support structure, your underlying goal is to convince your readers that your thesis is valid.
The best way to convince readers that your thesis is valid is to provide strong and sufficient support. How-
ever, support alone is not always enough. The way in which you present your evidence, though, can mean the dif-
ference between a successfully persuasive essay, and one that is easily dismissed. Here are six strategies that work
with your supporting evidence to make your essays more convincing:
1. Be specific.
2. Don’t include ideas you can’t support.
3. Establish credibility.
4. Acknowledge counterarguments.
5. Avoid absolutes.
6. Don’t offend.
L E S S O N
Strategies for
Convincing
LESSON SUMMARY
While strong evidence is essential for an effective essay, it may not be
enough to make your essay convincing. This lesson offers several
strategies to help make your essays more persuasive.
11
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Be Specific
Whatever your topic or assignment, the more precise you are throughout your essay, the easier it will be for your
readers to accept your assertions. Specific examples and details make abstract ides concrete, and something that’s
clear and concrete is more easily accepted than something vague and abstract.
For example, look at the difference between the next two paragraphs. The first lacks specific examples and
details and therefore lacks persuasive power. The second paragraph, however, offers some very specific examples
and details. It is much more convincing than its vague counterpart is.
To confirm my hypothesis, I asked my peers about the balance between work and play. Most of them said they thought
the balance should be about equal. Several of them pointed out that because of technology, the distinction between work
and home is fading, so it’s especially important to set aside time for play.
To confirm my hypothesis, I interviewed 30 of my peers—students from both the public and private high schools in my
area. I asked,“What do you think is the right relationship between work and play?” Twenty-two respondents said they
think work and play should have equal time in our lives.“We should play at least as much as we work,” said Ellen Reese,
a senior planning to major in computer science. “Of course, that’s a lot easier to do if you love your job, because then
that’s part of the play, too.” Andrew Fry, a junior who wants to be a journalist, was one of the 12 respondents concerned
with the collapsing distinction between work and home. “Between e-mail and the Internet, wireless connections, and
cell phones, we can take our work with us anywhere and work any time of the day. So many people bring their work
home with them and let it eat up their play time. I think it’s really important to set aside time each day, or at least each
week, to relax and play.”
Notice how the writer of the second paragraph offers specific information: the number of students polled,
the kind of students polled, and the exact question she asked them. This gives the reader a much clearer sense of
her survey and helps him or her better understand the results. Then, instead of generalizing the responses, she offers
more specifics, such as exactly how many students felt there should be an equal balance. Importantly, she also offers
specific responses. She doesn’t just tell us what people said by paraphrasing; she shows us by quoting their
responses. Once again, abstract ideas and generalizations are made more concrete—and therefore more convincing.
If You Can’t Support It, Don’t Include It
Imagine you’re on a jury. The prosecuting attorney turns to the jury box and says, “The defendant is clearly guilty.
I just know it.”He doesn’t offer any evidence to support his assertion. Absurd, of course. No legitimate lawyer work-
ing in her client’s best interest would make such a claim if she weren’t able to support it. The rule is if you can’t
support it, don’t include it, and it is as important for writers as it is for attorneys.
For example, you might believe that Americans today work more hours and have less leisure time than at
any other time in our history. There are probably statistics out there to support this assertion, but after a quick
search on the Internet, you find nothing. Unless you’re willing to put in more research time to find what you need,
as strongly as you may feel about the idea, since you can’t support it, you shouldn’t include it.
–STRATEGIES FOR CONVINCING–
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That doesn’t mean you have to scrap the idea altogether, though. If you can’t find evidence for the claim that
Americans in general work more and play less than ever before, you might be able to find evidence that supports
the assertion on a smaller scale. For many types of essays, you don’t need the kind of evidence that’s only found
though research. Personal examples supported with specific examples can work if your assignment isn’t a formal
research paper. You could rework your assertion by reducing its scope and stating the following:
These days, everyone in my family is working more than ever—both at home and at the office.
By using specific personal examples, facts, and anecdotes, this type of assertion can have a legitimate place in your
essay.
Establish Credibility
Credibility is the quality of being trustworthy and believable. The more credible a person is, the more likely you
are to accept his or her opinions as valid (well founded, logical). As a writer, you need to establish credibility on
two levels: your own credibility and the credibility of your sources.
Credibility is built upon two factors: expertise and freedom from bias. A bias is an opinion or feeling that
strongly favors one side over others. Expertise is established by education, experience, job or position, reputation,
and achievements. In general, the greater the expertise and the lower the potential for bias, the greater the credibility.
The Credibility of Your Sources
As mentioned in Lesson 10, when you use expert opinion or analysis to support your assertions, it’s important to
let readers know who your sources are and what the nature of their expertise is. Of course, you don’t have room
to include extensive biographies or resumes of each source, but some basic information can establish their
authority. If your source is a person, include his or her title, affiliation (does he or she work for a recognized or
renowned organization or institution of higher learning?), and a major achievement or two. If your source is an
organization, let readers know something about its history and achievements. For example, let’s look again at the
expert sources used for the flat tax essay:
■ Dr. Alan Auerbach, professor of Economics at the University of California of Berkeley and former chief economist
at the Joint Committee on Taxation, estimates that the average family of four will have $3,000 more in income
per year with a flat tax.
■ The Tax Foundation, a nonprofit tax think tank, estimates that America spends $140 billion complying with the
current tax code—a cost that would be reduced 94% by instituting a flat tax.
In the first example, the writer tells readers Dr. Auerbach’s current and former positions, both of which
demonstrate that he is an expert on the subject of taxes. In the second example, the title of the organization—The
Tax Foundation—tells readers that the organization is devoted to the subject. The writer describes it as a “think
tank,” which suggests that it seeks out and employs experts on the subject.
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These sources then, have expertise. But that doesn’t mean they’re credible. Many seemingly knowledgeable
and trustworthy sources are actually incorrect or biased. In order to trust the source of any information, you need
to determine the agenda of the person/organization disseminating it. Are they simply trying to relay facts, or are
they trying to get you to believe something, or change your mind on a subject? It can be difficult to find a direct
answer to that question, but you can begin to get a clearer picture by looking into the following:
■ What are the author’s credentials on this subject?
Is he or she qualified to write on the topic based on background or education? For some subjects, it is acceptable
to use information obtained from a hobbyist, self-proclaimed expert, or enthusiast, if you can verify it elsewhere.
However, you should obtain most information from a reputable source. And since you need to verify anyway, why
not use information, for instance, derived from Yale University’s Thomas Hardy Association, rather than from John
Doe’s personal website homage to his favorite writer, Hardy?
■ Does the author document sources?
Where do relevant facts and figures come from? If you are consulting print material, there should be footnotes
and a bibliography that show the author’s sources. On the Internet, you may also find such documentation, or
sources may be documented by using links to other websites (see the following section on evaluating a website
based on links). Even documentaries, to use a previous example, should cite sources in their credits.
■ Are the sources balanced and reputable?
Pages of footnotes are meaningless if they simply indicate that the author used untrustworthy sources him- or her-
self. Check some of the sources to verify that they are accurate and unbiased. For example, a book on gun laws
that relies heavily on material published by the National Rifle Association is not as reliable a source as another book
on the subject that uses a wide variety of sources representing both sides of the issue.
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While every author, like every person, has opinions about most subjects, authors of factual information are often
assumed to be without such bias. Bias in this context refers to a preference that makes one prejudiced. News-
paper and television reporters, for example, are expected to deliver the facts without offering an opinion. How-
ever, you should never assume a lack of bias.
For example, the 24-hour cable news channel, Fox News, uses the phrase fair and balanced to describe
its coverage. However, many critics have accused the channel of being biased. Try watching and reading the
news from a variety of sources. Check for differences in story coverage: Who spent more time on the four-alarm
fire than on the orphanage story? Who skipped the orphanage story to cover more of a politician’s handshak-
ing opportunities that day? You may also be interested in finding out more about the reporters and commen-
tators who deliver the news. Are they former politicians, or political speechwriters? Do they have affiliations with
special interest groups? What, if any, are their biases?
Determining Bias

■ What do others say about the author (whether individual or group)?
A quick way to check for opinions is to “Google”the author. Simply put his or her name (or the name of the group
if there is no individual author) in the search box in quotes. The results can be revealing. However, remember to
read them with a critical eye. If you are searching for someone with a radical or controversial view, you’ll proba-
bly find detractors. A handful shouldn’t deter you, but pages of negative information might.
Your Own Credibility
The best way to establish your expertise is to demonstrate to readers that you’ve “done your homework”—that
is, that you’ve considered issues carefully and consulted the research, if necessary, to support your position. To show
your audience that you are not unfairly biased, you’ll also need to acknowledge counterarguments and make con-
cessions. These two strategies are explained in the sections that follow.
Practice 1
You’ve been given an essay assignment about the impact of violence on television. Following are two “facts” and
their sources. Create a brief profile of each source to make that source credible. Then, for each “fact,”write a sen-
tence that includes the fact, its source, and enough information about the source to establish credibility.
“Fact” 1: The average television channel shows 579 acts of violence in a 24-hour period.
Source: Emily Rhodes
Profile:
Sentence:
“Fact” 2: Violent crimes committed by juveniles have quadrupled since 1973.
Source: Children’s Watch
Profile:
Sentence:
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Acknowledge Counterarguments
An important part of establishing your credibility and persuading readers is acknowledging counterarguments.
Counterarguments are ones that might be offered by someone supporting the other side of your argument. If you
are asserting that medical research on animals is unnecessary, you need to consider what someone asserting that
it is necessary would think.
Acknowledging counterarguments strengthens your argument. It shows that you have considered all sides
of the issue and thought carefully about the logic of your position. More importantly, it helps you better defend
your position. If you know what objections your readers might have, you can systematically address those objec-
tions in your essay (without, in many cases, revealing them as possible objections). Furthermore, acknowledging
counterarguments enables you to persuade your readers to believe you by addressing their concerns and then coun-
tering each concern with a reasonable premise of your own.
Compare these two arguments:
Lukas, can I borrow your car tomorrow morning? I have a job interview and I can’t get there by bus. I really want this
job. What do you say?
Lukas, I know you don’t like to let other people drive your car, especially since you put so much time into rebuilding
it. But I’m hoping you’ll make an exception. I have a job interview tomorrow and I can’t get there by bus. I’m really
excited about this job. I promise to have it back by noon with a full tank of gas. And to show my appreciation, I’ll take
her to the car wash on my way back.
It’s clear that the speaker in the second paragraph took some time to consider Lukas’s point of view. By address-
ing his concerns, the writer shows Lukas that he’s put himself in Lukas’s shoes, and this kind of empathy can be
a powerful tool for convincing a reader.
To help you acknowledge counterarguments, play “devil’s advocate.”While brainstorming or outlining, take
a few minutes to consider the opposite thesis; how would it best be supported? What arguments would likely be
made? If you can anticipate what the other side will say, you can acknowledge those arguments and come up with
effective counterarguments. It will also help you ﬁnd any holes in your argument that you may have missed.
Acknowledging counterarguments is not the same as supporting them. In fact, if you acknowledge them
strategically, you can actually use them to support your case. For example, you are arguing that school uniforms
should be mandatory for all public school students. One of your major supporting ideas is that school uniforms
will create a stronger sense of community. After playing devil’s advocate, you realize that people against the idea
of mandatory uniforms would argue that they create a culture of conformity. Here’s how you might acknowledge
the counterargument, show its weakness, and set the reader up for your position:
Many people have argued that school uniforms would encourage conformity, and that schools should do all they can
to help students develop a sense of individuality. But as much as we want to believe that the way we dress is an expres-
sion of our individuality, for most students, clothing is more often a means of conformity. Students want to dress like
their peers. They want to wear the same brands and the same styles as their friends (or the people whom they wish were
their friends). It is the rare student who truly uses clothing as an expression of individuality.
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Now that the writer has addressed the counterargument, he can go on to develop his position—that school
uniforms will create a sense of community.
Practice 2
You are writing an essay on the subject of censorship on the Internet. Take a stance on this issue and write a brief
thesis statement on a separate sheet of paper or on your computer. Then, come up with three supporting points.
Next, play devil’s advocate and list three points the opposition might make. Finally, write a brief paragraph in which
you acknowledge one of those points.
Avoid Absolutes
Persuasive writing involves pitting one side against another—and showing why one side is superior. It’s easy to
fall into the trap of thinking in terms of black and white. If one side is correct, that means the other side is wrong,
right? When you write in terms of absolutes, especially all or none, you weaken your writing. There are always excep-
tions, and a good essay is one that’s careful to avoid statements that don’t allow for those exceptions. Most
absolutes are gross generalizations or stereotypes, both of which you need to avoid.
Failure to acknowledge exceptions will seriously undermine your credibility with your reader. Here’s an
example:
Little Red Riding Hood is portrayed as naïve and innocent, just like all girls in fairy tales.
Well, maybe in all the fairy tales you’ve read, but in fact, many fairy tales describe girls who are sophisticated,
cunning, and even dangerous. There are many exceptions to the “rule” this writer just established, and thought-
ful readers will be put off by such a statement.
To allow for exceptions, exchange absolutes for less restrictive words and phrases. A single word such as many
or most can change a problematic, implausible absolute into a plausible, provable statement. Here are some of those
exchanges:
INSTEAD OF “ALL,” SAY: INSTEAD OF “NONE,” SAY:
most almost none
many very few
just about all/just about every with few exceptions
nearly all only a handful
the majority of some
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The fairy tale statement could be revised as follows:
Little Red Riding Hood is portrayed as naïve and innocent, like many girls in fairy tales.
Don’t Offend
If you want to successfully persuade your audience, don’t offend them. Students often don’t realize that something
they’ve written may be offensive—but that’s usually because they have a very specific reader in mind. That is, they
imagine a general reader who has a lot more in common with them than a true general reader might. This kind
of thinking can produce statements such as:
All people who claim to believe in the existence of alien life forms are simply unable to distinguish between fact and
opinion.
Besides being an absolute (suggesting that all people who claim to believe in alien life forms can’t distinguish
between fact and opinion), this claim is insulting to those who believe that some kind of alien life does exist on
other planets. You may believe that the existence of extraterrestrial life is an invalid theory, but many people (includ-
ing some very highly regarded scientists) do not. If your reader happens to believe that we are not alone in the uni-
verse, he or she probably won’t take your arguments seriously (no matter how strong they might be), because he
or she has been offended. Even if your audience is made up of those who share your opinions, they’re likely to bris-
tle at your insensitivity, and as a result, you’ll lose credibility in their eyes as well.
In Short
Writers use many strategies to make their essay more convincing. They provide specific details to make ideas more
concrete, they establish credibility and acknowledge counterarguments, they don’t include assertions they can’t
support, they avoid absolutes, and they take care not to offend their audience.
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Look at the essay you read for Skill Building until Next Time in the previous lesson. What strategies
for convincing do you see at work? Does the essay include many specific details? Does the writer estab-
lish credibility? How? Does he or she acknowledge counterarguments? How? Note the number of dif-
ferent strategies used in the essay.

Right or wrong, in the business world, many decisions are based solely on first impressions. Com-
panies spend thousands, and even millions, in advertising dollars to make sure your first impres-
sion of them is a good one.
First impressions are just as important in writing. A college admissions officer who’s reading his fortieth essay
of the day will probably put it down if it begins, “In this essay, I will . . .” If you tell him in the first few sentences
what you will say in the next dozens, what is his incentive to continue? If you begin a science lab report with the
specifics of an experiment, your teacher will probably give it a poor grade.
Both of these are examples of students who don’t understand the purpose and power of an introduction.
While it can vary slightly from one type of writing assignment to another, the introduction is a critical part of the
essay, and if it’s not included, it can ruin what might otherwise be a well-written piece.
L E S S O N
Introductions
LESSON SUMMARY
First impressions are important. This lesson explains the purpose of
introductions and how to write a “hook” that grabs the reader’s attention.
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What an Introduction Should Do
A combination of courtesy and strategy, the introduction “sells”the essay to the reader, compelling him or her to
read the rest of it. For most assignments, it should also acquaint the audience with the subject and purpose of the
essay. Specifically, essay writers have four tasks to accomplish within the first paragraph or two. An effective intro-
duction should:
1. Provide the context necessary to understand your thesis. When you’re writing for a general audience,
your readers don’t know who you are. They may not know your assignment and may not be familiar with
the issues or texts you are discussing. Thus, you might need to provide background information. If you are
writing about literature, you should include the titles, authors, and publications dates of the text you are
analyzing. Similarly, if you’re writing about a historical event, you should name the event, the date, and the
key people (or countries, or issues) involved. Here’s an example:
Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein was published over 180 years ago. But this remarkable novel raises a ques-
tion that is more important today than ever: What is a creator’s responsibility for his or her creation?
2. Clearly state the main point of the essay. Your readers should know from the beginning what idea you will
be developing throughout the essay. A clear thesis statement is a key component of an effective introduc-
tion. (See Lesson 9 for a review of thesis statements.) In the previous example, the last sentence expresses
the main idea of the essay—the question, and its relevance today.
The exception to this rule is the college application essay. Because of the high volume of essays each
admissions officer must read, it makes sense to stand out, and keep his or her attention, by being mysteri-
ous in your introduction. Make him or her read on to the second paragraph by not revealing your subject
until then.
Here’s an example:
I will never forget the moment I landed in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. As the plane descended, I was awed by the
dynamic geography and the juxtaposition of the sea, the mountains, and the city’s skyline. I absorbed the land-
scape further and my eyes focused on the favelas mounted on the hillsides.
This introduction works well on a number of levels: It takes the reader to an exotic location, describing the
landscape and setting the scene. The writer tells you the moment is unforgettable, and brings you along
with her. But, most importantly, she does not reveal anything about her subject. You have to read on to
find out what her essay is about.
3. “Hook”the reader. The introduction should not only get the reader’s attention, but compel him or her to
keep reading. The next section examines some of the many ways to write a successful hook.
–INTRODUCTIONS–
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4. Set the tone for the essay. Tone refers to the mood or attitude conveyed through language, particularly
through word choice and sentence structure. Your tone may be personal and informal, serious and formal,
urgent, relaxed, grave, or humorous. In the Frankenstein example, the language is serious and formal, and
it fits the serious subject (supporting examples in the essay include discussions of atomic weapons and
cloning).
Ways to Grab Your Reader’s Attention
A good hook contains an element of creativity and an awareness of the reader’s needs. It doesn’t simply announce
the subject or thesis, or make generalizations that sound clichéd. Phrases such as one step at a time; no news is good
news; have a nice day; when life gives you lemons, make lemonade; and no guts, no glory are so overused they have
little or no meaning.
The following seven introductory hook strategies offer specific ways to get into your subject and thesis that
arouse a reader’s attention, making your introduction an invitation to read on. These strategies are:
1. a quotation
2. a question
3. a surprising statement or fact
4. an imaginary situation or scenario
5. an anecdote
6. interesting background information
7. a new twist on a familiar phrase
A Quotation
Start with a quote from a text, a film, a subject-matter expert, or even a friend or relative if he or she said some-
thing relevant to the topic and of interest to your reader.
“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others,” said Napoleon in George Orwell’s classic novel
Animal Farm. Uncle Sam might say something similar:“All people must pay taxes, but some must pay more taxes than
others.” Our current federal income tax system treats taxpayers unfairly and requires and monumental budget to admin-
ister and maintain. A flat tax, which would treat all taxpayers equally and dramatically reduce tax compliance cost,
is the answer.
A Question
Open up with a question to get your readers thinking. Of course, the question (and its answer) should be rele-
vant to your thesis.
What’s in a name? Nothing—and everything. It is, after all, just a name, one tiny piece of the puzzle that makes up a
person. But when someone has a nickname like “Dumbo,” a name can be the major force in shaping one’s sense of self.
That’s how it was for me.
–INTRODUCTIONS–
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You’re writing not only to show off your writing skills, but also to sell yourself to the admissions officer
(your reader). It doesn’t make sense to reveal unflattering or potentially damaging information about your-
self. It is the reader’s job to select candidates who are not only smart enough, but also emotionally sta-
ble enough to stay in school and do well for four years. They’ll probably reject you if you give them reason
to believe you might not be able to handle college. While the hook of the essay about seeing a psy-
chiatrist is well done, it’s not the kind of material that works for the application essay.
A Surprising Statement or Fact
This type of hook provides “shock value” for the reader.
If you don’t believe our current tax law is ridiculously out of control, consider this: Our total tax law consists of 101,295
pages and 7.05 million words. That means our tax law has almost 100 times more pages and ten times as many words
and the Bible. Bloated? You bet. But it doesn’t have to be. The government would collect equal or greater tax revenue
and save millions of dollars in compliance costs by instituting a flat tax system.
Practice 1
On a separate sheet of paper or on your computer, write an introductory hook for one of the essays you brain-
stormed or outlined in an earlier lesson. Use a quotation, a question, or a surprising statement or fact.
An Imaginary Situation or Scenario
Hook your readers with your imagination. You might ask them to place themselves in the scene, or you can let
them simply witness it.
You’ve been drifting at sea for days with no food and no water.You have two companions. Suddenly, a half-empty bot-
tle of water floats by.You fight over the bottle, ready to kill the others if you have to for that water.What has happened?
What are you—human or animal? It is a question that H.G. Wells raises over and over in The Island of Dr. Moreau.
His answer? Like it or not, we’re both.
An Anecdote
Start your essay by telling a short, interesting story related to your subject.
I’d been getting into a lot of trouble—failing classes, taking things that didn’t belong to me. So the guidance counselor
at school suggested that my parents take me to a psychiatrist. “You mean a shrink?” my mother replied, horrified. My
father and I had the same reaction. After all, what good would it do to lie on a couch while some “doctor” asked ques-
tions and took notes? So I went to my first session angry and skeptical. But after a few weeks, I realized that we had it
all wrong. Those shrinks really know what they’re doing. And mine helped me turn my life around.
–INTRODUCTIONS–
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Another Word about College Application Essays

Interesting Background Information
Tell your reader something unusual about your subject. Here’s a revision of the Frankenstein introduction using
this strategy:
Incredibly, Frankenstein—one of the most important novels in Western literature—was written by a teenager. When
it was published in 1818, Mary Shelley was only 19 years old. Despite her youth, Shelley’s story raises a question that
is more important today that ever: What is the creator’s relationship to his or her creation?
A New Twist on a Familiar Phrase
Reword or rework an old standard to create a fresh hook.
To eat or not to eat? That is the question millions of Americans struggle with every day as they fight the battle of the
bulge. But it seems to be a losing battle. Despite the millions spent on diet pills and diet plans, Americans today are
heavier than ever.
There are many reasons for this nationwide weight gain, but experts agree that the main cause is lack of exer-
cise. And one of the reasons we don’t get enough exercise is because we spend too much time in front of the TV.
Notice that this introduction is actually two paragraphs. In some essays, the introduction runs three or even
four paragraphs. The key is to have an introduction that is in proportion with the rest of the essay. If your essay
is two pages long, one paragraph is probably sufficient for the introduction. If it goes longer, the body of your essay,
where you develop your main points and support them with evidence and examples, will lack the room it needs
to completely state your case. But if your essay is ten or twelve pages long, it may take a couple of paragraphs to
properly introduce your topic and thesis. You might have a more detailed anecdote, for example, or spend two or
three paragraphs describing a scenario that sets up your thesis.
Practice 2
Write a two-paragraph introduction for one of the essay examples provided in the first half of this book. Use one
of these strategies: an imaginary situation or scenario, an anecdote, interesting background information, or a new
twist on a familiar phrase.
In Short
Introductions serve an important function. They “welcome” your reader into your essay by providing context,
stating your thesis, and setting the tone. They should also grab your reader’s interest. Strategies for attention-
grabbing hooks include starting with a quotation, a question, a surprising statement or fact, an imaginary situ-
ation or scenario, an anecdote, interesting background information, or a new twist on a familiar phrase.
–INTRODUCTIONS–
97

–INTRODUCTIONS–
98
Skim through a magazine, reading only the introductions to the articles. What techniques do writers use
to grab your interest? Do the introductions provide context and state the main point of the article? What
tone do they set for the rest of the essay?

Have you ever enjoyed a movie only to be disappointed by its ending? Though the ending may be
just a small fraction of the movie’s length, if it’s not satisfying, it can ruin the whole experience.
The same is often true for essays. A powerful conclusion can dramatically improve a reader’s
impression of a weak or mediocre essay, while a weak conclusion can do the reverse, leaving a bad impression of
an otherwise well-written essay.
What a Conclusion Should Do
Like the introduction, the conclusion of an essay serves a speciﬁc function. Its job is to wrap things up in a way
that makes readers feel satisﬁed with their reading experience. Writers create this sense of satisfaction by:
1. restating the thesis in different words
2. offering a new understanding
3. providing a sense of closure
4. arousing the reader’s emotions
L E S S O N
Conclusions
LESSON SUMMARY
How you conclude your essay is just as important as how you introduce
it. This lesson will explain what conclusions should do and how to write
an ending that has impact.
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1. to bring to an end
2. to arrive at a belief or opinion by reasoning
The Word Conclude Means:
Restating the Thesis
Before your reader ﬁnishes your essay, remind him or her of what your goals were. What did you want him or her
to take away from your essay? Reminding readers of your thesis (without repeating it word for word) will help
ensure that they get, and remember, your point.
Introduction: What’s in a name? Nothing—and everything. It is, after all, just a name, one tiny piece of the puzzle
that makes up a person. But when someone has a nickname like “Dumbo,” a name can be the major force in shaping
one’s sense of self. That’s how it was for me.
Conclusion: I don’t blame my brother for how I turned out, of course. He may have given me the nickname, but I’m
the one who let that nickname determine how I felt about myself. I could have worn the name proudly—after all, Dis-
ney’s Dumbo is a hero. Instead, I wore it like a dunce cap. I wish I had known then what I know now: You are what
you believe yourself to be.
Offering a New Understanding
To conclude means to bring to an end. But it also means to arrive at a belief or opinion by reasoning. And that’s what
a good conclusion should do: It should both bring the essay to an end and end with a conclusion—the under-
standing that you have come to by working through your essay. After all, you stated a thesis and then supported
it with evidence. That has to add up to something. You should now have a deeper understanding of your subject,
and it’s this understanding that you need to convey to your readers in your conclusion. This understanding makes
readers feel as if their time was well spent; it is their “reward” for reading your essay.
In the previous example, the writer offers a new understanding of how names can shape people. Readers learn
that he had the choice to let the nickname shape him in a positive or negative way. The understanding is his “gift”
to his readers, and he shares it in his conclusion.
Providing a Sense of Closure
Good conclusions often offer a new understanding, but that new understanding is very closely related to the the-
sis. The conclusion is not the time to introduce a new topic. Don’t bring up assertions that have not already been
supported by the body of your essay. Doing so will not only frustrate your reader, but will probably cause him or
her to lose sight of your thesis. In the following examples, one conclusion provides closure while offering a new
understanding, while the other one goes off on a tangent unrelated to the original thesis.
I don’t blame my brother for how I turned out,of course.He may have given me the nickname,but I’m the one who let that
nickname determine how I felt about myself. I could have worn the name proudly—after all, Disney’s Dumbo is a hero.
Instead, I wore it like a dunce cap. I wish I had known then what I know now: You are what you believe yourself to be.
–CONCLUSIONS–
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I don’t blame my brother for how I turned out, of course. He may have given me the nickname, but I’m the one who
let that nickname determine how I felt about myself. I could have worn the name proudly—after all, Disney’s Dumbo
is a hero. Disney knew what he was doing when he created the Dumbo character—he’s someone most of us can relate
to, and he has a lot to teach children.
Even without reading the body of the essay, it is evident that the last sentence of the second conclusion
doesn’t relate closely to the thesis. The writer leaves his reader with thoughts about a movie and its creator, and
not about his nickname and how it affected his sense of self. The ﬁrst conclusion is successful because it maintains
close ties with the thesis, even as it draws a new conclusion, or gives a new understanding, about that thesis.
The Art of Framing
One of the most effective ways to provide a sense of closure is to “frame”your essay with a conclusion that refers
to the introduction. The introduction and conclusion use the same approach, presented in different terms. The
conclusion then serves as a reminder of where the essay began.
In the sample conclusions offered later in this lesson, notice how the “anecdote”conclusion frames the Dumbo
essay by repeating the opening question and providing a more sophisticated answer. Similarly, the “call to action”
conclusion frames the To eat or not to eat? essay by referring to the essay’s opening lines.
Arousing the Reader’s Emotions
Good conclusions can also move readers by appealing to their emotions. Because your conclusion restates and
extends your thesis by offering a new understanding, and because you want your essay to end with impact, it makes
sense to write a memorable ending. One of the best ways to do that is through emotion. The conclusion to the
Dumbo essay, for example, touches our emotions by making us think about how we may have let negative beliefs
about ourselves dictate who we have become. At the same time, it inspires us by suggesting that we have the power
to change ourselves if we have a negative self-image.
Strategies for Conclusions
Just as there are many strategies for creating an attention-getting introduction, there are a number of strategies
for creating a powerful conclusion. These are among the most effective:
■ a quotation
■ an anecdote
■ a prediction
■ a solution or recommendation
■ a call to action
A Quotation
You may have noticed that three of the introduction strategies we discussed in the previous lesson—quotations,
questions, and anecdotes—are also effective for conclusions. Here’s how you might use a quotation to sum up
an essay:
–CONCLUSIONS–
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In Grand Illusion, the whole idea of nationhood is exposed as an illusion, and the fact that we go to war over an illu-
sion is the film’s greatest irony—and tragedy. It is a tragedy Renoir hopes we can avoid repeating. If “losing an illusion
makes you wiser than finding the truth,” as Ludwig Borne wrote, then Renoir has succeeded in making us all more wise.
A Question
Here’s how you might use a question to conclude an essay:
“What kind of place is America?” you asked. In short, America is an idea and an experiment.We call the idea “democ-
racy,” and we see what happens when we let people say whatever they want, go wherever they want, and in most cases,
do whatever they want. True, the results aren’t always pretty. But it certainly is a beautiful experiment, isn’t it?
An Anecdote
Anecdotes add interest and impact to conclusions. Notice how this anecdote frames the essay by repeating the
question used in the introduction.
Introduction: What’s in a name? Nothing—and everything. It is, after all, just a name, one tiny piece of the puzzle
that makes up a person. But when someone has a nickname like “Dumbo,” a name can be the major force in shaping
one’s sense of self. That’s how it was for me.
Conclusion: What’s in a name? Enough to make me think long and hard about what to name my son before he was
born. I spent months researching names and their meanings and thinking about the nicknames people might come up
with. Once we finally settled on a name, I spent many sleepless nights worrying that we’d made the wrong choice and
petrified that Samuel James would hate us for giving him that name. But I’ve realized that along the way, Sam will
have to learn the same lesson I did. I only hope that I can help make it less painful.
Practice 1
On a separate sheet of paper or on your computer, write a conclusion for an introduction you wrote in Lesson
12. Use one of the following strategies to frame the essay: quotation, question, or anecdote.
A Prediction
You can close your essay with a forecast for a person, place, or thing related to your thesis. Here’s an example from
a college application essay:
Thirty years from now, when I’m 48, I will retire and survey my empire. I will have created and led a hugely success-
ful Fortune 500 company; I will have used my considerable wealth to set up a literacy foundation and a home for orphans
in my native Cuba. Deeply satisfied with my accomplishments, I will then establish scholarships for disadvantaged stu-
dents to Briarwood College, for I will recall with great gratitude that my education there made all of my accomplish-
ments possible.
–CONCLUSIONS–
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A Solution or Recommendation
Conclude with a solution to the problem you’ve discussed, or a recommendation for future action. This strategy
will serve you well later, when you’re asked to write business memos or reports. Here is a conclusion from an essay
that examines misinformation on the Internet:
While the Internet can be a very valuable source of information, it contains so much misinformation that it’s almost
criminal. Though we can’t—and shouldn’t—regulate what people put up on the Web, we can—and should—provide
guidelines for citizens surfing the Web. Why not create a “reliability index” that measures the trustworthiness of web-
sites? Then the Web can truly be what it was meant to be: an asset, and not a liability.
A Call to Action
Finally, you can end your essay by suggesting a specific action that your readers should take. As with the solution
or recommendation strategy, this one is also used often in business writing. Here’s an example of a conclusion for
the essay about television and lack of exercise. Notice how it frames the essay by referring to the opening line of
the introduction.
Introduction: To eat or not to eat? That is the question millions of Americans struggle with every day as they fight
the battle of the bulge. But it seems to be a losing battle. Despite the millions spent on diet pills and diet plans, Amer-
icans today are heavier than ever.
There are many reasons for this nationwide weight gain, but experts agree that the main cause is lack of exer-
cise. And one of the reasons we don’t get enough exercise is because we spend too much time in front of the TV.
Conclusion: Television entertains and informs us. But it also fattens us. If you are one of the millions of overweight
Americans, take a simple step toward a healthier body. Get up and turn off the TV. The question isn’t “To eat or not
to eat.” Rather, the question is, what can you do instead of watching TV? Go for a walk. Take a swim. Ride a bike. Get
some exercise! You’ll end up with a healthier body—and mind.
Practice 2
On a separate sheet of paper or on your computer, write a conclusion for the other introduction you wrote for
Lesson 12. Use one of the following strategies: a prediction, solution or recommendation, or call to action.
In Short
Like introductions, conclusions serve several important functions. They refocus the essay by restating the thesis;
they offer a gift to the reader in the form of a new understanding (which is an extension of the thesis); they pro-
vide a sense of closure; and they arouse readers’ emotions. Some of the same strategies for introductions also work
for conclusions, including quotations, questions, and anecdotes. Other closing techniques include predictions, solu-
tions or recommendations, and calls to action.
–CONCLUSIONS–
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–CONCLUSIONS–
104
Skim through a magazine, but this time, read the introductions and conclusion to at least three articles.
What techniques do writers use to conclude their articles? Do the conclusions restate the main idea or
thesis offered in the introduction? Do they go a step further and offer a new understanding? Do they
provide a sense of closure? Do they speak to your emotions? What techniques do the writers use to
conclude their articles?

105
S E C T I O N
3
Revising,
Editing, and
Proofreading
the Essay
Once you have a rough draft of your essay, you are ready to transform it
into a polished piece of writing. This polishing process consists of three
steps: revising, editing, and proofreading. Think of them as holding up var-
ious strengths of magnifying glasses to your essay:
■ Revising looks at your essay through a lens that lets you see it as a whole; you will pay
attention to the largest issues involved in its crafting. Have you addressed the topic? Is
there a logical ﬂow to your ideas or story? Is each paragraph necessary and properly
placed?
■ Editing takes a closer look at your writing, through a stronger lens that highlights
words and sentences. Are your word choices appropriate and fresh? Are there any
repetitive or awkward sentences or phrases?
■ Proofreading puts your essay under the strongest lens. You will check within each
word for errors in spelling and correct any other mechanical mistakes, such as gram-
mar and punctuation.

From the Latin revisere, meaning to visit or look at again, revision is the most general re-examination
of your essay. But it can also seem like the most overwhelming; it’s harder to step back and look at
your entire essay with fresh eyes and ears than it is to correct spelling and punctuation errors. But this
is a critical step in which you make sure you have achieved your goal, and see if any sections of the essay need
improving.
Revision takes place on a couple of levels: the “big picture” or essay level, and the paragraph level. It makes
sense to look at your writing on these levels ﬁrst, before jumpig into editing or proofreading. Think of it this way:
Why take the time to correct grammatical errors and reword sentences if you might delete those sentences later
in the revision process?
Re-visioning
You can look at your essay with “fresh eyes”in two ways—literally, by giving your work to a trusted reader for feed-
back, and ﬁguratively, by examining your own work as if you’ve never seen it before.
L E S S O N
Revising:
The Big Picture
LESSON SUMMARY
This is the first of two lessons dealing with the revision process. It shows
you how to revise for three important “big picture” issues: fulfilling the
assignment, stating a clear thesis, and providing strong support.
14
107

If you think professional writers work alone, think again. They know how important it is to get feedback
before they send their work to the publisher—it’s not uncommon for them to share their work with a number of
trusted readers first. That strategy is important for your essays, too. Readers can help you pinpoint the strengths
and weaknesses of your writing. They can tell you what works well, and what doesn’t; what comes across clearly
to them, and what confuses them.
When you share your writing with people you trust to give you honest feedback, ask them:
■ What do you like about my essay?
■ Is there anything that seems confusing or unclear?
■ What do you think my purpose was in writing this essay?
■ Is there anything you need to know more about, or that needs more explanation?
■ What do you think I could do to improve this essay?
These questions can also work when you direct them to yourself. But before you reread for revising, take a
break. The best revisions take place a day or two after you’ve completed your draft. That time lets you approach
your work with the “fresh eyes” we mentioned earlier in this lesson.
Try reading your essay aloud. Read as if you are presenting it to an audience, and listen to your words. This
technique can help you find places where your wording sounds awkward, or where your sentences are confusing
or too long. You can also hear where your writing simply doesn’t convey what you intended it to. Mark those areas
that sound as if they should be revised, making notes of ideas for how to improve them. Remember to keep in mind
the following:
■ Does my essay fulfill the assignment?
■ Is my thesis statement clear? Is it easily identifiable?
■ Are my ideas well supported with examples, evidence, and details?
Reworking
Once you’ve got feedback and have taken your own notes on what could be improved, it’s time to make changes.
Those changes could be additions, deletions, or rewordings. The second type of change is probably the hardest.
Especially if you don’t consider yourself a strong writer, you may feel unwilling to give up a paragraph, or even a
sentence. But revising is about keeping what works, and fixing or eliminating what doesn’t. If it doesn’t work, it
detracts from the rest of your essay and needs to go.
Fulfilling the Assignment
On the largest scale, if your draft doesn’t fulfill the requirements of the assignment, you need to figure out where
you went wrong. You probably don’t need to rewrite the whole thing, but rather shift the focus. Try rewriting the
assignment in your own words to determine exactly what is expected of you. You may simply need to add a few
sentences to your introduction and conclusion, or add a new paragraph that helps clarify your position. Don’t stop
reworking until your essay clearly and completely responds to the assignment.
–REVISING: THE BIG PICTURE–
108

Rewording Your Thesis
If your thesis isn’t clear, or is not easily identifiable, you probably have one of these common problems:
■ No thesis. Your essay may have a lot to say, but its paragraphs are not held together by one controlling idea.
This type of essay is often the result of insufficient planning. If you took the time to consider your audience
and purpose, brainstorm, and develop a tentative thesis and outline, you should be able to avoid this prob-
lem. Go back to your prewriting notes to find the main idea you started with, and begin drafting a thesis
from there.
■ Your thesis isn’t supported by your essay. You do have a thesis, but the body of your essay supports another
(perhaps similar) idea. This often happens when writers discover, through the drafting process, that they feel
differently about their topic than they originally thought. As a result, they end up building a case for a differ-
ent thesis. If your essay does indeed support an idea that’s different from your thesis (and that idea still
addresses the assignment), the easiest way to correct the problem is to rewrite your thesis to fit your essay.
■ More than one main idea. If your essay has two, or even three, main ideas, you may not have sufficiently
narrowed your thesis during the planning stage. Recall in Lesson 5 the discussion concerning the need to
have a thesis that correlates with the space confines of an essay. It must be broad enough to warrant an essay-
length discussion, and narrow enough to be able to complete a thorough discussion within those confines.
Or, you may have discovered other interesting ideas while drafting and decided to include them. As a result,
you have two or three underdeveloped mini essays rather than one fully developed idea. If you have more
than one main idea, see if there is a way to tie them together. Otherwise, choose the better of the two and
revise your essay to develop that idea alone.
Checking for Support
You’ll also need to assess how well your draft supports your thesis, and how well your evidence, examples, and details
support the ideas you put forth. Types of support include:
■ specific examples
■ facts
■ reasons
■ descriptions and anecdotes
■ expert opinions and analysis
■ quotations from the text
How Much Is Enough?
There is no hard and fast rule about how much support you need for an effective essay. But it’s safe to say that one
supporting idea is almost never enough. Two is better, but it may not be enough to make your claim. Three is often
the magic number—it has “critical mass,” and it shows readers why you think what you do. Four ideas are even
better; beyond critical mass, they’re a good solid amount of evidence.
109

Support That’s Directly Related to the Thesis
As important as the amount of support is its relevance to the thesis. What good are ten supporting paragraphs if
they’re not supporting the right idea? Read the following essay carefully, paying particular attention to the sup-
port provided for the thesis.
When was the last time you told a lie? If you’re like most people, it was probably recently. Did you know that you can
also lie without even saying a word? This kind of lie can be even more devastating.
The poet Adrienne Rich said, “Lying is done with words and also with silence.” To lie means “to tell something
that is untrue.” But it also means “to be deceptive.”We often use silence to deceive. Rich is right.We lie with words, but
also with silence.
For example, a man buys a necklace for his girlfriend from a thief. He knows the necklace is stolen and doesn’t
tell his girlfriend. As a result, she ﬁnds out it’s a stolen necklace when she tries to take the necklace back to the store for
repairs.
I’m guilty, too. I knew my friend’s boyfriend was seeing someone else. But I kept quiet. I helped keep her in the
dark. Then, when she found him out—and found out that I’d known about it—it was terrible. It destroyed their rela-
tionship and our friendship.
Looking closely at the two supporting examples, you can see that neither example addresses how these silent
lies are more devastating than a spoken lie. Now the writer must make a decision. Should she expand each para-
graph to explain how keeping silent was worse than lying aloud? Or should she revise her thesis to eliminate the
idea that silent lies are “more devastating” than regular lies?
Choosing the latter, she revised her thesis once more and created the following thesis statement:
We lie with words, but also with silence. And these lies can be equally devastating.
Now the writer has two solid supporting examples for her thesis. But she should probably add as least one,
and preferably two more, to strengthen her essay.
Practice 1
So far, there are only two supporting paragraphs for the lying with silence draft. Add an additional supporting para-
graph to strengthen and support this essay.
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Strategies for Convincing
While this essay now has a clear, focused thesis supported by several examples, it still lacks persuasive power. Before
you consider your check for support complete, consider whether you’ve applied the strategies for convincing dis-
cussed in Lesson 10. Ask the following questions:
■ Are your supporting paragraphs specific?
■ Do you have any unsupported statements?
■ Have you established credibility?
■ Do you acknowledge counterarguments?
■ Do you make concessions?
■ Do you avoid absolutes?
■ Do you say anything that might offend your audience?
The examples in the lying with silence essay are not as specific as they could be. In fact, they would work better if
they were expanded with more information that would show how people are affected by these silent lies. Instead
of one paragraph for each example, two or even three would bring the examples to life and make them more spe-
cific. Because the essay relies almost entirely on examples for support, the more detailed those examples are, the
more convincing they will be.
Practice 2
On a separate sheet of paper or on your computer, revise one of the example paragraphs in the lying with silence
essay to provide more information and specific details. Expand the example until you have two complete
paragraphs.
In Short
Revision deals with the content and style of the essay and should begin by addressing the big-picture issues: the-
sis and support. Look at your essay with fresh eyes, both literally in the form of trusted readers, and figuratively,
as you reread after taking a break from your writing. Then, rework the essay to assure that it fulfills the assign-
ment, contains a strong, clear thesis statement, and is supported with convincing examples and evidence.
111
Use the read-aloud technique for another essay you’re working on or that you wrote for another
purpose. What did you notice about your writing? Do you like the way it sounds? Does it convey the
meaning(s) you intended?

The next step in re-visioning looks at your essay with a stronger lens, examining it at the paragraph level.
The ﬁrst question to ask about paragraphs is also a “big picture” question:
1. Are you paragraphs in a logical and effective order?
Once you’ve addressed this question, you can look at each paragraph individually with the following ques-
tions in mind:
2. Does each paragraph have only one controlling idea?
3. Are there effective transitions between ideas?
4. Do special paragraphs fulﬁll their functions?
L E S S O N
Revising
Paragraphs
LESSON SUMMARY
This second lesson on the revision process shows you how to revise
paragraphs for more effective organization and transitions. You’ll also
learn how to strengthen individual paragraphs.
15
113

Checking Your Organization
If your ideas don’t flow logically, they’ll be difficult for your reader to follow. Make sure those ideas are placed within
the essay in order in which they make sense. Seven organizing principles were discussed in Lessons 6 and 7:
■ chronology
■ cause and effect
■ spatial order
■ analysis/classification
■ order of importance
■ comparison and contrast
■ problem ➞ solution
As you read your paragraphs checking for organization, consider the following questions:
1. What organizing principle holds the essay together? One overlying organizing principle should be clear.
If you can’t identify one, look carefully at how you presented your ideas. If you haven’t used an organizing
strategy, chances are your essay will feel disjointed to readers. Think about which strategy makes the most
sense for your subject and purpose.
2. Is this the most effective organization for your subject and purpose? Once you’ve identified your organ-
izing principle, consider whether it’s the best one for your essay. For example, if you’ve used the block tech-
nique for a comparison and contrast essay, you might consider whether the point-by-point method would
work better instead.
3. Do any paragraphs or sections disrupt this organizational pattern? If there is a break in your organiza-
tional structure, it should not only be intentional, but also serve a legitimate purpose. Perhaps you decided
to keep the block comparison and contrast. In one section, though, you slip into the point-by-point mode
and compare two items directly. Unless there is a solid reason for the inconsistency, such as making sure
that those two items stand out as more significant than the others being compared, change that section to
the block technique. Consistency makes your essay easier to read and understand.
–REVISING PARAGRAPHS–
114

Practice 1
Substantial revisions have been made to the essay about “lying with silence.” For each paragraph, note the idea
and function in the space provided. The first two paragraphs are done for you. Then, answer the questions that
follow.
PARAGRAPH IDEA FUNCTION
When was the last time you told a lie? If you’re like most Lying is also done with Introduces the essay
people, it was probably recently. In fact, it was probably silence and can be
more recently than you think. The poet Adrienne Rich devastating.
said, “Lying is done with words and also with silence.”
We don’t have to talk to tell a lie. Our silences can be just
as deceiving—and just as devastating.
You might be wondering how we can lie with silence. To Definition of lie Explains how silence
lie means “to tell something that is untrue.” But it also is also a lie
means “to be deceptive.” There are many ways we
deceive. Words are one way; silence is another.
There’s a difference between being silent because you
don’t want someone to know something and being silent
because you want someone to think something that isn’t
true. The first is not a lie; it is not deceptive. The second,
however, is a lie; the aim is to deceive. For example,
imagine that I am in a job interview. If I don’t tell you that I
went to three different colleges, that’s not a lie. But if I
know you assume that I’ve graduated, and I don’t tell you
that I don’t have a college degree, I am deliberately
deceiving you with my silence. I am “telling” you a lie.
These silent lies can have consequences. For example, a
man who buys a stolen necklace for his girlfriend could
lose her trust, which could be detrimental to the relation-
ship. More importantly, he could also face criminal
charges. In addition, even she could be in trouble for
possession of a stolen necklace.
This man has committed a crime with his silence. By
remaining silent, he not only puts the woman in jeopardy
for legal trouble, but he also can get in a lot of trouble
himself.
115

I’m guilty of silent deceptions, too. Last year, I discovered
that my friend’s boyfriend was seeing someone else. I
kept quiet about it because I didn’t want to hurt my friend.
A few weeks later, someone else told her about the two-
timing—and I told her I knew about it. She felt deceived,
not only by her boyfriend, but by me, too. And those
deceptions ruined her relationship with her boyfriend and
our friendship.
Silent lies can also happen between strangers. Imagine
you’re at a diner. When the server hands you your
check, you notice that she made a mistake, charging
you $12.58 instead of $15.58. But you don’t tell her.
Instead, you pay the amount on the check, plus a tip
based on that amount, and pocket the difference.
These silent lies can cause as much harm as those told
with words. They can even have devastating, serious
consequences. That’s why the law should not only
prosecute people who lie on the stand, but also those
who tell silent lies.
Questions
1. What is the main organizing principle of the essay?
2. Is this the best organizing strategy for the essay? Why or why not?
3. What would you suggest the writer do to improve the organization?
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Revising Individual Paragraphs
To check the paragraphs that make up your essay, you’ll need to examine your writing with a stronger lens than
the one you used to for “big-picture” issues. You will be determining whether each paragraph has just one main
idea, whether there are adequate transitions between paragraphs, and if your introductory and concluding para-
graphs fulfill their distinct purposes.
One Controlling Idea
A paragraph is a group of sentences about one idea. That idea should be stated in a topic sentence, which is typ-
ically the first or last line. Topic sentences not only guide your reader, but they also link the sentences in the para-
graph together by stating the idea that they all relate to. If you can’t locate a topic sentence, should the main idea
be stated in one, instead of implied by your examples?
If there is a topic sentence, does each sentence relate to it? In the lying with silence essay, each paragraph con-
tains only one main idea except for the sixth paragraph. Here, the writer describes the lie and its consequences in
one paragraph. It would be more effective to dedicate another paragraph to the consequences. The revised para-
graphing then looks like this (topic sentences are in bold):
I’m guilty of silent deceptions, too. Last year, I discovered that my friend’s boyfriend was seeing someone else. I kept
quiet about it because I didn’t want to hurt my friend. A few weeks, later, someone else told her about the two-timing—
and I told her I knew about it.
She couldn’t believe that I deceived her like that. She felt just as betrayed as if I’d lied to her face about it. Her
boyfriend’s deception ruined their relationship. My deception destroyed our friendship.
Relevance
If you’ve identified more than one idea in a paragraph, you should probably break it into two paragraphs. But before
you move text, make sure each idea is clearly related to the thesis. If it’s not, it needs to be reworked or deleted.
(If you didn’t catch it when you were revising the big picture, here’s another chance.) Remember the importance
of maintaining focus in your essay—unrelated paragraphs not only get you off track, but also often confuse read-
ers as well.
Development
Once you’ve identified the controlling idea of each paragraph, check to see that each idea is sufficiently developed.
Topic sentences, like thesis statements, make assertions about your subject. And those assertions need support.
Look carefully at any paragraph that consists of only one or two sentences. Chances are, they’re seriously under-
developed. The only time you should have a one-sentence paragraph is when you intentionally decide to empha-
size the idea in that sentence.
Transitions
Transitions are the words and phrases used to move from one idea to the next. They help your words flow smoothly
and show readers how your ideas relate to each other. In shorter essays, a phrase is usually enough to transition
from one paragraph to the next. In longer essays, a sentence or two may be required to guide your reader to the
next idea.
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ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES
order of importance more importantly above all moreover
in addition first and foremost furthermore
first, second, third, etc.
chronological then next later
before after during
while as when
afterward since until
first, second, third, etc.
spatial beside next to along
around above below
beyond behind in front of
under near
cause and effect therefore because as a result
so since thus
consequently accordingly hence
comparison likewise similarly like
in the same way just as
contrast on the other hand however on the contrary
unlike but yet
rather instead whereas
although
In the lying with silence essay, notice how the writer uses transitions to move from one paragraph to another.
The first sentence of the sixth paragraph, “I’m guilty of silent deceptions, too”connects the previous example (the
man who bought a stolen necklace for his girlfriend) to the next example, the writer’s own silent lie. Then, the
beginning of the second sentence uses the transitional phrase for example to lead readers into the support for that
paragraph. In addition, the phrase a few weeks later provides a transition in the middle of the paragraph, connecting
the writer’s decision to keep silent with her friend’s discovery of the deception.
To demonstrate how important transitions are, here’s the fourth paragraph of the essay with transitions
removed and then repeated with transitions intact (and underlined):
These silent lies can have consequences. A man who buys a stolen necklace for his girlfriend could lose her trust, which
could be detrimental to the relationship. He could also face criminal charges. Even she could be in trouble for posses-
sion of a stolen necklace.
These silent lies can have consequences. For example, a man who buys a stolen necklace for his girlfriend could lose
her trust, which could be detrimental to the relationship. More importantly, he could also face criminal charges. In
addition, even she could be in trouble for possession of a stolen necklace.
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Introductions and Conclusions
Both of these paragraphs must fulfill specific duties within the essay. While you’re revising, you’ll need to look
closely at them to make certain they function properly.
As you reread your introduction, ask:
■ Does it provide the context needed to understand my thesis?
■ Does it clearly state the main point of my essay?
■ Does it set the tone for the essay?
■ Does it grab my reader’s interest?
Notice how the introduction to lying with silence accomplishes each of these four tasks. It provides context
by quoting Adrienne Rich’s claim about silent deceptions. It clearly states the thesis in the last two sentences. It
also sets the tone by using words like deceives and devastating, which will be repeated in the essay. In addition, it
grabs the audience’s attention by beginning with a thought-provoking question.
As you reread your conclusion, ask:
■ Does it restate my thesis in a new way?
■ Does it offer a new understanding?
■ Does it provide a sense of closure?
■ Does it arouse my reader’s emotions?
While the lying with silence essay does a good job with the introduction, its conclusion needs work. Notice
how it simply restates the thesis instead of putting it in different words. It does offer a new understanding, but goes
too far by introducing a contentious new issue instead of providing a sense of closure.
Practice 2
On a separate sheet of paper or on your computer, revise the conclusion to the “lying with silence” essay.
In Short
To revise on the paragraph level, first check for your overall organizing principle. How have you arranged your
paragraphs? Is this the most effective organizing strategy for your essay? Then check individual paragraphs to make
sure they have only one relevant and fully developed idea. Next, check for transitions both between and within
paragraphs. Finally, check to see that your introduction and conclusion fulfill their important functions.
119

120
Look again at the essay you read aloud at the end of Lesson 14. Identify the organizing principle, the
topic sentences, and the transitions used throughout the essay.

To edit your essay effectively, you’ll need to read each paragraph a number of times, paying careful atten-
tion to your sentences and the words that comprise them. While some students edit well on the com-
puter, many others work better on a hard copy. Unlike revising, which entails the possible reworking
of large parts of your essay, editing is a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence task. Taking pen to paper may
help you focus more closely on the pieces that make up your essay, rather than the work as a whole.
As you read the hard copy of your essay, pen in hand, ask yourself the following questions. Circle any prob-
lems as you encounter them. You might also want to make a quick note in the margin with an idea or two about
how to improve the problem(s).
■ Are unnecessary words and phrases cluttering up your sentences?
■ Do you repeat yourself? Rework your point so that you say it well the ﬁrst time, and remove any repetitious
words and phrases.
■ Are there any clichés, pretentious language, or confusing jargon?
■ Do you use the active voice whenever possible?
■ Do you avoid using ambiguous words and phrases?
L E S S O N
Editing
LESSON SUMMARY
Editing takes a closer look at your writing, through a stronger lens that
highlights words and sentences. Are your word choices clear and
direct? Are there any repetitive or awkward sentences or phrases?
When you edit, you can clean up and clear up words and sentences
to make them better convey your intended meaning and easier to
understand.
16
121

WORDY REPLACE WITH
a lot of many or much
all of a sudden suddenly
along the lines of like, such as
are able to can
as a matter of fact in fact, or Delete
as a person Delete
■ Are verb tenses consistent?
■ Is the antecedent for every pronoun clear?
■ Do you use precise adjectives and adverbs?
■ Is your sentence structure varied? Sentences should not be the same length, nor should they be repetitive in
any other way, such as all beginning with a noun, followed by a verb, followed by an object.
After you’ve read your essay a few times and highlighted any areas that need improving, focus on one problem at
a time.
Be Concise
Why use ten words to get across a meaning that could be better said in five? Those ten words will definitely waste
your reader’s time and probably confuse the point you’re trying to make. Many of the words and phrases that fol-
low are both well known and, unfortunately, well used. They don’t convey meaning, and are therefore unneces-
sary. The following are three of the worst offenders, with usage examples.
1. Because of the fact that. In most cases, just because will do.
Because of the fact that he was late, he missed his flight.
Because he was late, he missed his flight.
2. That and which phrases. Eliminate them by turning the idea in the that or which phrase into an adjective.
These were directions that were well written.
These directions were well written.
3. That by itself is a word that often clutters sentences unnecessarily, as in the following example:
The newscaster said that there was a good chance that election turnout would be low and that it could
result in a defeat for our candidate.
The newscaster said there was a good chance election turnout would be low and could result in a defeat for
our candidate.
–EDITING–
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Word Choices for Concise Writing

WORDY REPLACE WITH
as a whole Delete
as the case may be Delete
at the present time currently or now
both of these both
by and large Delete
by deﬁnition Delete
due to the fact that because
for all intents and purposes Delete
has a tendency to often or Delete
has the ability to can
in order to to
in the event that if
in the near future soon
is able to can
it is clear that Delete
last but not least ﬁnally
on a daily basis daily
on account of the fact that because
particular Delete
somewhere in the neighborhood of about, around
take action act
the fact that that, or Delete
the majority of most
the reason why the reason or why
through the use of through
with regard to about or regarding
with the exception of except for
123
Word Choices for Concise Writing
(continued)

Wordy and Concise Sentences
Wordy: The students were given detention on account of the fact that they didn’t show up for class.
Concise: The students were given detention because they didn’t show up for class.
Wordy: Everyone who has the ability to donate time to a charity should do so.
Concise: Everyone who can donate time to a charity should.
Wordy: In a situation in which a replacement for the guidance counselor who is retiring is found, it is
important that our student committee be notified.
Concise: When a replacement for the retiring guidance counselor is found, our student committee must
be notified.
Avoid Unnecessary Repetition
Unnecessary repetition is a sign of sloppy writing. It’s easy to repeat the same thing, varying it slightly each time.
It’s harder to say something well once, and then write about your next idea or example. Repetition also wastes valu-
able time and space. If you are writing while the clock is ticking, or are limited to a number of words or pages,
say it right the first time and move on.
For example:
Repetitive: They met at 4 P.M. in the afternoon.
Concise: They met at 4 P.M.
P.M. means in the afternoon, so there’s no reason to say in the afternoon. It’s a waste of words and the
reader’s time.
Repetition can be found even in short phrases. The list that follows contains dozens of such phrases that can
clutter your essay. Most of them contain a specific word and its more general category. Why state both? The word
memories can only refer to the past, so you don’t need to say past memories. We know that blue is a color, so describ-
ing something as blue in color is repetitive and therefore unnecessary. In most cases, you can correct the redun-
dant phrase by dropping the category and retaining the specific word.
Some of the phrases use a modifier that is unneeded, because the specific is implied in the general. For
instance, the word consensus means general agreement. Therefore, modifying it with the word general is repeti-
tive. Similarly, mathematics is a field of study, so it does not need to be modified with the word field. You can tighten
up your writing, saying it well one time, by eliminating wordiness.
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RETAIN ONLY THE FIRST WORD DROP THE MODIFIER (FIRST WORD)
any and all odd in appearance past memories terrible tragedy
first and foremost mathematics field final destination end result
refer back cheap quality general consensus final outcome
close proximity honest in character various differences free gift
large in size confused state each individual past history
often times modern in design basic fundamentals totally obvious
reason why unusual in nature true facts rarely ever
heavy in weight extreme in degree important essentials unexpected surprise
period in time strange type future plans sudden crisis
round in shape
Avoid Overly Informal and Overused Language
Words and phrases that are too formal, too obscure, or overused don’t belong in your essay.
■ Vulgarisms
The last thing you want to do is turn off or offend your reader. Since it’s difficult to know what kinds of lan-
guage your audience may find offensive or in poor taste, err on the side of caution by not including any lan-
guage considered even mildly obscene, gross, or otherwise offensive. This includes scatological and sexual
terms, and words such as butt (as in “I worked my butt off”), hell (as in “hotter than hell”), God (as in “oh,
God!”), and damn.
■ Clichés
Clichés should be avoided not only because they are too informal, but also because they are overused. Your
writing must be in your own voice, without relying on stale phrases such as one step at a time; no news is
good news; have a nice day; when life gives you lemons, make lemonade; and no guts, no glory.
■ Slang
Slang is nonstandard English. Its significance is typically far removed from either a word’s denotative or con-
notative meaning, and is particular to certain groups (therefore, it excludes some readers who won’t under-
stand it). Examples include blow off, canned, no sweat, and thumbs down (or up). It is also inappropriate and
offensive to use slang terms for racial or religious groups.
■ Buzzwords
Buzzwords are a type of slang. They’re words (real or made up) that take the place of simpler, more direct words.
They are, at best, pompous, and at worst, confusing. And, like other forms of slang, buzzwords don’t belong in
your essays. Examples include resultful (gets results), suboptimal (not the best), guesstimate (estimate), requi-
site (necessary), potentiality (potential), and facilitate (help).
–EDITING–
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■ Technobabble
Don’t assume your audience shares your interests or familiarity with technology; write instead for a reader
who has a broad knowledge base that is not expert in any subject. That means explaining anything your
reader might not be familiar with, without talking down. Examples include ISP (Internet Service Provider),
screenagers (teens who are online), mouse potato (technology’s answer to the couch potato), and I-way
(information superhighway).
Use the Active Voice
Verbs have two voices. In the active voice, the subject is the source of, or cause of, the action. In the passive voice,
the subject is acted upon. In a personal essay, you are usually the subject. That means the active voice is much more
effective in conveying your personality through your essay—you’re the “actor,” not the “acted upon.” The active
voice is also clearer and more direct. In the following examples, note the simplicity and directness of the first sen-
tence in each pair. The second sentences, written in the passive voice, are clunky and noticeably longer.
Compare:
My friend asked for another helping.
Another helping was asked for by my friend.
I misplaced my wallet.
My wallet was misplaced by me.
The administration has selected three finalists for the open position.
Three finalists for the open position have been selected by the administration.
126
Big words won’t win points with your readers. Aim to sound like yourself, not to impress with your knowledge
of ten-letter words. Here are three reasons to stop looking for and using so-called big words.
1. They sound pretentious (you’re supposed to sound like you, not a politician or chairman of the board).
2. They can sound ridiculous (by using words that are not in your normal vocabulary, you run the risk of using
them incorrectly).
3. They may appear as a “tactic” (your reader might think you are trying to add weight with words because
you are worried your essay isn’t well written or that your ideas aren’t worth reading).
To the point: I decided to keep it simple by packing only those things that I could carry in one suitcase.
Thesaurized: I determined to eschew obfuscation by packing only those things that I could transport in one valise.
To the point: At my summer job, I had the chance to learn about Information Technology as it relates to
engineering.
Thesaurized: At my summer employment, I had the fortuity to obtain IT-related information as it pertains to the
engineering field.
Think Twice before Opening Your Thesaurus

Ambiguous: When doing the laundry, the phone rang.
Clear: The phone rang when I was doing the laundry.
Ambiguous: She almost waited an hour for her friend.
Clear: She waited almost an hour for her friend.
Ambiguous: I told her I’d give her a ring tomorrow.
Clear: I told her I’d call her tomorrow.
Ambiguous: A speeding motorist hit a student who was jogging through the park in her blue sedan.
Clear: A speeding motorist in a blue sedan hit a student who was jogging through the park.
Correcting Ambiguous Language
Avoid Ambiguity
Ambiguous means having two or more possible meanings. Ambiguous language can either be words and phrases
that have more than one meaning, or word order that conveys a meaning different from the one intended by the
writer:
The quarterback liked to tackle his problems.
This sentence can be read two ways: The quarterback likes to deal with his problems, or his problems are his oppo-
nents on the ﬁeld whom he grabs and knocks down. This kind of confusion can happen whenever a word has more
than one possible meaning. The quarterback liked to address his problems is a better sentence, and is unlikely to be
misunderstood.
My advisor proofread my essay with the red sports car.
Here, the word order of the sentence, not an individual word, causes the confusion. Did the advisor proofread the
essay with his car? Because the phrase with the red sports car is in the wrong place, the meaning of the sentence is
unclear. Try instead: My advisor with the red sports car proofread my essay.
Clear Up Confusing Pronoun References
Pronouns (words such as I, we, them, and her) take the place of nouns. They should only be used when the noun
to which they refer (known as the antecedent) is obvious and meaningful. Check the pronouns in your writing
to be certain they are not one of the following:
■ unclear
■ too far from the antecedent
■ useless
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127

Example: Trini is interested in teaching and farming, which is her career choice.
What is her career choice? Which could mean either teaching or farming, making it unclear. The writer needs to
restate the career instead of using a pronoun in order to eliminate the possibility the reader will not understand
the sentence. Corrected: Trini is interested in teaching and farming, but farming is her career choice.
Example: They always talk about the dangers of global warming.
This common pronoun error is known as an expletive: They is useless, because it appears to refer to no one. If
the writer has that information, he or she can revise the sentence to be more precise: The newspaper frequently has
articles about the dangers of global warming. If there is truly no they, the sentence should be revised by eliminat-
ing it: There is much talk about the dangers of global warming.
Practice 1
Edit the following paragraph for clarity. Eliminate wordiness, unnecessary repetition, overly informal or overused
language, the passive voice, and ambiguity.
I believe that the biggest and greatest challenge my generation will face will be ethical dilemmas created by scientiﬁc
discoveries and advances. There has been a boatload of things discovered in this century, especially in the time period
of the last few decades. Humankind is able to avail itself of a plethora of opportunities it heretofore was unable to take
advantage of. But some very difﬁcult ethical questions have been raised by these opportunities. They have given us new
power over nature, but this power can easily be abused and misused.
128
Incorrect: Both Fellini and Bergman edited his movie.
Correct: Both Fellini and Bergman edited Bergman’s movie.
Incorrect: Leave all ingredients out of the recipes that do not belong in a healthy diet.
Correct: Leave all ingredients that do not belong in a healthy diet out of the recipes.
Incorrect: They banned parking in their lot so the snowplows could do their job.
Correct: The owners of the parking lot banned parking in their lot so the snowplows could do their job.
Incorrect: The Civil War and the Spanish-American War took place in the nineteenth century. It was a turning
point for the country.
Correct: The Civil War and the Spanish-American War took place in the nineteenth century. The Civil War was
a turning point for the country.
More Examples of Pronoun Usage

Use Modifiers to Add Precision
Modifiers make your point clear while adding meaning and originality to your writing. Consider how powerful,
specific adjectives and adverbs work in these sentences:
Sentence A: My grandmother put on her sweater.
Sentence B: My grandmother put on her cashmere sweater.
Sentence A: The football team practiced in the rain.
Sentence B: The football team practiced in the torrential downpour.
In both cases, sentence B allows you to hear the voice and impressions of the writer, giving a more accurate and
interesting picture of the action.
The right modifiers (adjectives and adverbs) can also get your message across in fewer words. This is criti-
cal in an essay with a specified length. You don’t want to sacrifice unique details, but sometimes, one word will
do the job better than a few. For example, Chihuahua can take the place of little dog; exhausted can take the place
of really tired; and late can take the place of somewhat behind schedule.
Vary Your Sentence Structure
The repetition of sentence patterns is not only boring, but in some cases, it can reduce your grade. The SAT essay,
for example, is scored by readers trained to look for, and reward, variety in sentence structure. They can deduct
a point or two for an essay filled with sentences that follow the same pattern. When you’re editing your essay, check
for monotonous sentence structure. Here’s an example:
The plasma membrane is the outermost part of the cell. It isolates the cytoplasm. It regulates what comes in and out
of the cytoplasm. It also allows interaction with other cells.The cytoplasm is the second layer of the cell. It contains water,
salt, enzymes, and proteins. It also contains organelles like mitochondria.
Notice how each sentence begins with a noun or pronoun, followed by a verb. The rhythm created by this
repetition is boring. A successful edit should vary the sentences:
The plasma membrane, the outermost part of the cell, isolates the cytoplasm. It regulates what comes in and out of the
cell and allows interaction with other cells. The second layer, the cytoplasm, contains water, salt, enzymes, and pro-
teins, as well as organelles like mitochondria.
The edited version combines sentences and uses introductory phrases and appositives (descriptive words
and phrases set off by commas) to vary sentence structure. The result is a much more engaging paragraph.
–EDITING–
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Practice 2
Edit the following paragraph, replacing general words with more exact ones and creating variety in sentence struc-
ture. (Note: You may also have to revise for clarity to address some of the problems in this paragraph.)
My generation will have many problems. One is the feeling of being overwhelmed by technology. Another is that the
generation gap is growing. Another is that there are more people than every before. There isn’t enough room for every-
body. There are also limited resources.
In Short
Wordiness and ambiguity often prevent ideas from coming across clearly. Edit your sentences to eliminate clut-
ter and unnecessary repetition. Revise sentences that use overly informal or overused words, and exchange the pas-
sive voice for the active. Clarify ambiguous words and unclear pronoun references. Finally, improve your writing
by using precise modiﬁers and adding variety to your sentence structure.
–EDITING–
130
Try writing some bad sentences. Use unnecessary words and repetition, jargon, pretentious words,
unclear pronoun references, and ambiguous words. Avoid exact words and phrases, and repeat the
same sentence structure. By trying to write poorly, you’ll get a better sense of what to avoid in your
writing.

Studies on grammar- and spell-check programs show that they are more effective when used as a first
(not final) step in proofreading. After you’ve clicked your mouse through grammar and spell
check, print out a hard copy of your essay and complete proofreading steps 2 and 3: Check for errors
in grammar and mechanics.
Limitations of Spell and Grammar Checkers
There is no excuse for not using spell- and grammar-check programs. They’re fast and simple, and catch many
common errors. However, they’re not foolproof. Spell check has three important limitations you should be
aware of:
1. Non-Word versus Real-Word Errors
Most of us think of spelling errors in the first category—that is, a string of letters that does not make a real
word. You might type sevn instead of seven, or th for the. Spell check is an excellent tool for catching these
L E S S O N
Proofreading
LESSON SUMMARY
Before you submit your essay, there’s one more important step: proof-
reading. Good proofreading involves far more than a simple run of spell
and grammar check on your computer. In fact, those programs are not
foolproof, and therefore, a reliance on them alone to find your errors is
a mistake. However, they are not a bad place to start. This lesson
explains how to use these tools to your advantage, as well as how to
find and correct the most common grammar and mechanics errors.
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131

types of mistakes. However, if you are discussing the seven years of piano lessons you have taken, and you
leave off the s in the word seven, the result is even, which spell check won’t flag, because even is correctly
spelled.
This is known as a real-word error. You have typed a legitimate, correctly spelled word; it’s just not
the word you meant to type, and it doesn’t convey the meaning you intended. Spell check can’t find these
types of errors.
2. Proper Nouns
Spell check uses a dictionary that does not include most proper nouns and words in other categories, such
as the names of chemicals. You can always add a word or words to the dictionary once you are sure of its
spelling, but the first time, you will need to use another source (a reliable print one is best) to verify the
spelling.
3. Errors Spelled Similarly to Other Real Words
If you misspell a word in such a way that it is now closer, letter by letter, to a word other than the one you
intended, spell check will probably offer the wrong word as a correction. For example, if your essay
includes a coffeehouse scenario, and you type the word expresso, spell check will correct the error with
express rather than espresso. Similarly, alot will be corrected to allot. You must pay careful attention to spell
check’s suggested corrections to ensure the right selection.
Grammar-check programs are also effective but not foolproof. They can make two kinds of mistakes: miss-
ing errors, and flagging errors that are actually correct. The first problem, missing errors, is illustrated by the fol-
lowing examples. A grammar check on the following sentence did pick up the subject/verb agreement error (I is),
but did not notice the participle error (I studying).
I is ready to take the exam after I studying my notes and the textbook.
Similarly, the punctuation problems in the following sentence were not flagged.
The recipe, calls for fifteen ingredients and, takes too long to prepare.
When grammar check does highlight an error, be aware that it may in fact be correct. But if your knowledge
of grammar is limited, you will not know whether to accept grammar check’s corrections. To further complicate
matters, you may be offered more than one possible correction, and will be asked to choose between them. Unless
you are familiar enough with the specific problem, this may be no more than a guess. It is important to under-
stand the type of error highlighted, and get more information if you are not sure about it.
–PROOFREADING–
132

Proofreading for Grammar
Grammar refers to the hundreds of rules that govern sentences. Space confines limit this book’s discussion of those
rules to three of the most common errors:
■ confusing words (they’re, there, their)
■ agreement (singular nouns with singular verbs, plural nouns with plural verbs)
■ run-ons and sentence fragments
Confusing Words
Often, words are confused because the writer is in a hurry. It’s not a matter of needing to learn the meaning of
the words, but rather taking the time to check for accuracy. However, certain groups of words are commonly con-
fused because not only do they sound or look alike, but also their meanings may be close enough to cause hesi-
tation. Check the following list for those you’re unsure of, and commit that shorter list to memory.
WORD DEFINITION OR USAGE
accept (verb) to recognize
except (prep.) excluding
affect (verb) to influence
effect (noun) result
effect (verb) to bring about
among (prep.) to compare three or more people or things
between (prep.) used for two people or things
133
1. Take your time. Studies show that waiting at least 20 minutes before proofreading your work can increase
your likelihood of finding errors. Get up from your computer, take a break or move on to some other task,
and then come back to your writing.
2. Read backward. Go through your writing from the last word to the first, focusing on each individual word,
rather than on the context.
3. Ask for help. A pair of fresh eyes may find mistakes that you have overlooked dozens of times, and one
or more of your colleagues or friends may be better at finding spelling and grammar errors than you are.
4. Go under cover. Print out a draft copy of your writing, and read it with a blank piece of paper over it, reveal-
ing just one sentence at a time. This technique will encourage a careful line-by-line edit.
5. Watch the speed limit. No matter which proofreading technique(s) you use, slow down. Reading at your
normal speed will not give you enough time to spot errors.
6. Know thyself. Keep track of the kinds of errors you typically make. Common spelling errors can be caught
by spell check if you add the word or words to the spell-check dictionary. When you know what you are
looking for, you are more likely to find it.
Professional Proofreading Tricks

beside (adj.) next to
besides (adv.) in addition to
complement (noun) match
compliment (noun, verb) praise; to give praise
desert (noun) arid, sandy region
dessert (noun) sweet served after a meal
e.g. abbrev. for Latin exempli gratia (free example or for example)
i.e. abbrev. for Latin id est (it is or that is)
elicit (verb) to stir up
illicit (adj.) illegal
farther (adv.) beyond
further (adj.) additional
imply (verb) to hint or suggest
infer (verb) to assume, deduce
its (pronoun) belonging to it
it’s (contraction) contraction of it is
Hint: Unlike most possessives, it doesn’t have an apostrophe.
lay (verb) the action of placing or putting an item somewhere; a transitive verb, meaning
something you do to something else
lie (verb) to recline or be placed (a lack of action); an intransitive verb, meaning it does not
act on anything or anyone else
loose (adj.) not restrained, not fastened
lose (verb) to fail to win; be deprived of
principal (adj.) main
principal (noun) person in charge
principle (noun) standard
stationary (adj.) not moving
stationery (noun) writing paper
than (conj., prep.) in contrast to
then (adv.) next
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134

that (pronoun) introduces a restrictive (or essential) clause
which (pronoun) introduces a nonrestrictive (or nonessential) clause
Hint: Imagine a parenthetical by the way following the word which. “The book, which (by the way) Joanne
prefers, is her first novel,” is incorrect. Therefore, it should read, “The book that Joanne prefers is her first
novel.” “Lou’s pants, which (by the way) are black, are made of leather,” is correct.
their (pronoun) belonging to them
there (adv.) in a place
they’re (pronoun) contraction for they are
who (pronoun) substitute for he, she or they
whom (pronoun) substitute for him, her or them
your (pronoun) belonging to you
you’re (pronoun) contraction for you are
Agreement
Agreement refers to the balance of sentence elements such as subjects and verbs and pronouns and antecedents.
(An antecedent is the noun a pronoun replaces.) To agree, singular subjects require singular verbs, and plural sub-
jects require plural verbs. Likewise, singular nouns can be replaced only by singular pronouns, and plural nouns
require plural pronouns.
Most of these errors are easy to spot. If you mistype “The scientists was working on an important experi-
ment,” you (or, possibly, your grammar-check program) will catch it. But problems arise when a phrase or
phrases separate the subject and verb or noun and pronoun. Here’s an example:
“Eat, drink, and be merry,” is a label associated with Greek philosopher Epicurus, but like most catchy slogans, they
simplify what is actually a rich and complex message.
Notice how the phrase like most catchy slogans can mislead you. If you assume slogans is the subject, then the
pronoun they and the verb simplify seem correct—they agree with the plural subject. But look again at the sen-
tence. Slogans isn’t the subject of the verb simplify. What is simplifying? Not the slogans, but the label “Eat, Drink,
and Be Merry”—a singular noun. Thus, the pronoun must be it and the verb must be simplifies to agree with the
subject.
–PROOFREADING–
135

Run-ons and Sentence Fragments
Complete sentences require a noun and verb, and express a fully developed thought. Two common sentence errors
are extremes. Sentence fragments stop too quickly; they are phrases that are not whole thoughts. Run-on sen-
tences don’t stop soon enough; they include two or more complete clauses or sentences.
Sentence fragments are often missing a subject or verb, and may be phrases or parts of other sentences. Be
aware that fragments can sometimes be difficult to identify because even though they don’t express complete
thoughts, they can be long and appear correct. Here are a few examples, with corrections:
Because she had to stop studying and go to lacrosse practice.
Cried a lot.
When we finished the game after the sun began setting.
She had to stop studying and go to lacrosse practice.
Sheu Ling cried a lot.
We finished the game after the sun began setting.
Run-on sentences are made up of two or more independent clauses or complete sentences placed together
into one sentence without proper punctuation. For example:
We were hungry and John was tired so we had to stop at the first rest area that we saw.
Kim studied hard for the test that’s why he got an A.
Patty took flying lessons every Saturday so she couldn’t go to the picnic and she couldn’t go to the graduation party either
but she has already signed up for another group of flying lessons because she likes it so much.
Here’s how to fix run-on sentences:
1. Separate the clauses with a period. Example: We are here. You are not.
2. Connect the clauses with a comma and a conjunction (and, or, nor, for, but, so, yet). We are here, but you
are not.
3. Connect the clauses with a semicolon (and possibly an adverb such as however, therefore, or otherwise,
making sure it expresses the right relationship between the two ideas). We are here; you are not.
The previous run-ons can be corrected as follows:
We were hungry and John was tired, so we had to stop at the first rest area that we saw.
Kim studied hard for the test; that’s why he got an A.
Patty took flying lessons every Saturday, so she couldn’t go to the picnic. She couldn’t go to the graduation party either,
but she has already signed up for another group of flying lessons because she likes it so much.
–PROOFREADING–
136

Practice 1
Proofread the following paragraph for grammatical mistakes. Make changes to improve the clarity and structure
of the sentences as well.
Comic relief is important in tragedies, readers need a little relief from all of the sadness in the story. For example, Ham-
let. Ophelia had just died. The next seen is with the gravedigger. Who is a very funny character. They dug up a skull
and makes along speech about who the skull might have belonged to. Even though its about death. The scene is funny,
it lets readers forget about the tragedy for a moment and laugh.
Proofreading for Mechanics
Mechanics refers to the standard practices for the presentation of words and sentences, including capitalization,
punctuation, and spelling. As with grammar, there are many rules for mechanics, but here we will cover the ones
that cause essay writers the most problems. See the Appendix for more thorough grammar and mechanics
resources.
Capitalization
Capitalization is necessary both for specific words and to start sentences and quotes. However, many writers over-
use it. Only six occasions require capitalization:
1. the first word of a sentence
2. proper nouns (names of people, places, and things)
3. the first word of a complete quotation, but not a partial quotation
4. the first, last, and any other important words of a title
5. languages
6. the pronoun I, and any contractions made with it
Punctuation
There are dozens of punctuation marks in the English language. They’re used to separate ideas, form words, and
make the meanings of sentence clear. Poor punctuation can confuse your readers and change your intended mean-
ing. For example, one comma completely changes the meaning of this short sentence:
Don’t call me, stupid!
Don’t call me stupid!
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137

Here’s a quick punctuation review:
IF YOUR PURPOSE IS TO USE THIS PUNCTUATION EXAMPLE
end a sentence period[.] Use a period to end a sentence.
connect complete sentences semicolon[;] or a comma [,] and A semicolon can connect two
a conjunction [and, or, nor, for, sentences; it is an excellent way
so, but, yet] to show that two ideas are related.
connect items in a list comma [,] but if one or more items The table was overturned, the
in that list already has a comma, mattress was torn apart, and the
use a semicolon [;] dresser drawers were strewn all
over the ﬂoor.
The castaways included a profes-
sor, who was the group’s leader;
an actress; and a housewife.
introduce a quotation or colon [:] or comma [,] Colons have three functions:
explanation introducing long lists, introducing
quotations, and introducing expla-
nations.
He said, “This simply won’t do.”
indicate a quotation quotation marks [“ ”] “To be or not to be?” is one of the
most famous lines from Hamlet.
indicate a question question mark [?] Why are so many engineering
students obsessed with Star Trek?
connect two words that work hyphen [-] brother-in-law, well-known author
together
separate a word or phrase for dash [—] I never lie—never.
emphasis
separate a word or phrase that is parenthesis [( )] There is an exception to every rule
relevant but not essential (including this one).
information
show possession or contraction apostrophe [’] That’s Jane’s car.
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138

Spelling
Proofreading for spelling errors after you’ve run a spell-check program means looking carefully for real-word errors.
If you typed tow instead of two, that mistake is still in your essay, waiting for you to find it. Use the professional
proofreading tricks on page 133 (especially numbers 2, 4, and 6) to scan for mistakes.
Practice 2
Proofread the following paragraph for mechanical errors:
Compact discs (CDs), which may be found in over 25 million american homes not to mention backpacks and auto-
mobiles first entered popular culture in the 1980’s. But there history goes back to the 1960’s, when an Inventor named
James Russell decided to create and alternative to his scratched and warped phonograph records, a system that could
record, store, and replay music without ever whereing out.
In Short
Proofreading is the final step in the writing process. Begin by running spell- and grammar-check programs, being
mindful of their shortcomings. Then, using the professional proofreaders’ tips, study your essay for errors in gram-
mar. In particular, look out for confused words, agreement mistakes, and run-on sentences and fragments.
Finally, check your mechanics. Have you used capital letters and punctuation marks correctly? Are there real-word
or other spelling errors that spell check missed?
–PROOFREADING–
139
Get a good grammar handbook that includes practice exercises (see the Additional Resources for sug-
gestions) and review the rules of grammar and mechanics. Do you remember the pretest at the begin-
ning of the book? Note the areas that give you trouble. Work through the appropriate sections of the
book to address your weak points. If you tend to write sentence fragments, for example, spend extra
time working through the exercises on complete sentences.

141
S E C T I O N
4 Taking an
Essay Exam
This fourth and final section deals with a specific essay-writing situation:
the timed essay exam. You can use most of the writing strategies you’ve
learned so far, but because your time is limited, this kind of essay requires a
unique approach. The lessons in this section will give you specific strategies for tackling
essay exams, from the crucial planning stage through the editing process.

Writing an essay in an exam situation, with the clock ticking, is very different from other types
of essay writing. Of course, the fundamentals of good writing don’t change (which is why Sec-
tions 1–3 apply to any type of essay). What changes is your approach. When you have just 25
minutes (SAT), 30 minutes (ACT), or an hour (many state tests, such as Regents’), you must use your time wisely.
Every minute counts.
The way to take full advantage of every minute is to prepare; gather all available information about the test
beforehand, checking the resources in the Additional Resources section of this book, as well as your exam’s web-
site. Understand the type of prompt you’ll ﬁnd on the test, know how to organize your thoughts, and be able to
expand prewriting notes into paragraphs. Take timed practice exams not only to get used to the situation, but also
to identify your strengths and weaknesses. When you take a timed essay exam, preparation can mean the differ-
ence between a great score and a poor one.
L E S S O N
Preparing for
an Essay Exam
LESSON SUMMARY
Essay exams are stressful. You have to come up with a well-written
piece under a strict time restraint in a room crowded with other stu-
dents. How can you alleviate some of that stress and walk into the test-
ing room with confidence? The answer is preparation.
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143

Types of Exams
Spend time learning the general features of the essay you’ll be taking. Understand the topics and what scorers will
be looking for. Study the instructions for your essay carefully (they’re all online)—think of how much time you’ll
save during the exam if you don’t have to read them. Finally, visit the test website to get the most up-to-date infor-
mation about topics and any changes made to the tests.
ACT
The ACT Plus Writing Test is optional. Some schools require the test, so check with those you plan on applying
to before you make your decision to register for it. The essay is written in response to a prompt concerning an issue
of relevance to high school students. You’ll need to take a stand on that topic, support your point of view, and pres-
ent a counterargument.
Here’s a sample prompt:
In an effort to reduce juvenile violence and crime, many towns have chosen to enforce curfews on minors under the
age of eighteen. These curfews make it illegal for any minor to loiter, wander, stroll, or play in public streets, highways,
roads, alleys, parks, playgrounds, or other public places between the hours of 10:00 P.M. and 5:00 A.M. These curfews
also make it illegal for parents or legal guardians to allow minors to congregate in certain public places unsupervised.
Those who support these curfews believe they would reduce community problems such as violence, graffiti, and drugs,
and would force parents and guardians to take responsibility for their children’s whereabouts. Those who oppose cur-
fews for minors claim these laws violate the Fourteenth Amendment rights of life and privilege for U.S. citizens. They
also believe that such curfews stereotype minors by presupposing that citizens under the age of eighteen are the only
people who commit crimes.
In your essay, take a position on this question. You may write about either one of the two points of view given, or you
may present a different point of view on this topic. Use specific reasons and examples to support your position.
Two trained readers will score your essay on a scale of 1–6; the highest possible score is a 12, and the lowest
is a 2. Those readers will evaluate how well you:
■ supported your position
■ maintained focus on the topic
■ developed and organized your position logically
■ supported your ideas
■ adhered to the rules of standard written English
For the latest information about the test, check www.act.org.
GED
The General Educational Development test contains a 45-minute writing section in which test takers must
develop an expository essay that includes personal observations, knowledge, and experience. The typical GED essay
is about 250 words in length, written on your choice of five topics. A list of possible topics, as well as some test-
–PREPARING FOR AN ESSAY EXAM–
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taking hints, may be found at http://www.cdlponline.org/gedprint/files/GED10.pdf. The official GED Testing Ser-
vice website offers links to your jurisdiction’s testing program, which may differ slightly from that of other states.
Check www.acenet.edu/clll/ged/index.cfm for the latest information.
Those who score the GED essay read between 25 and 40 essays an hour. They look for:
■ well-focused main points
■ clear organization
■ development of ideas
■ appropriate sentence structure and word choice
■ correct punctuation, grammar, and spelling
SAT
With just 25 minutes to write, you won’t be expected to turn in a final draft essay when taking the SAT. Minor errors
in grammar, usage, and mechanics are not weighed against you. Scorers instead read the essay to get an overall
impression of your writing ability. They look for evidence of critical thinking: how well you responded to the topic,
developed a point of view, and used appropriate examples and evidence to support your position. Is your essay
clearly focused, and does it transition smoothly from one point to the next? Do you show evidence of having a
varied and intelligent vocabulary?
You’ll get either a “response to a quote” or a “complete the statement” prompt. The former has one or two
quotes on a topic—you’ll need to take a stand on that topic in your essay. The latter asks you to fill in the blank
in a sentence, and write an essay based on your completed sentence. The latest information on the SAT essay may
be found at www.collegeboard.com.
Regents’ and Other Exit Exams
More than 25 states, including California, Alaska, North Carolina, and Texas, require a passing grade on an exit
exam to be eligible for high school graduation. These tests vary, so it is important to get specific information about
the test you are preparing to take. However, most exit exams allow 60 minutes to develop an essay based on one
of a choice of topics. A list of topics for Georgia’s Regents’ exam, for example, may be found at
www.gsu.edu/~wwwrtp/topics.htm (but remember to check with your school regarding the test you will be
given).
A typical exit essay is approximately 1,500 words. Possible topics include responses to literature, biograph-
ical narratives, and even business letters. Those who grade exit essay exams ask:
■ How well did you address the topic?
■ Were your ideas organized?
■ Did you develop major points, and support them with details and examples?
■ Were your word choices and sentence structure effective and varied?
■ How consistent was your style (paragraphing), grammar, spelling, and punctuation?
■ Did you express yourself freshly and uniquely?
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Types of Essays
You have been assigned dozens of essays during high school. They might have been a response to something you
read, an argument about a particular topic, or an explanation of an event or other subject of study. In fact, there
are countless types of essays. However, almost all timed essay exams fall into one of two major categories: expos-
itory or persuasive. In fact, the ACT and SAT call exclusively for persuasive essays.
Expository
An expository essay gives directions, instructions, or explanations. It informs by presenting the writer’s knowl-
edge about the topic to the reader. You might be asked to define, compare and/or contrast, or explain cause and effect.
In fact, think of the verbs used in your topic as key words that clue you in to the fact that you are being asked to
write an expository essay. These key words include:
■ Compare: examine qualities or characteristics to note and discuss similarities and differences
■ Contrast: examine two or more ideas, people, or things, stressing their differences
■ Define: give a clear, authoritative meaning that identifies distinguishing characteristics
■ Describe: relate the details that make the subject in question unique
■ Diagram: create a graphic organizer that explains your answer
■ Discuss: examine the subject(s) thoroughly, and give a detailed explanation of its strengths and weaknesses
■ Enumerate: determine the points you must make, and present them in a list or outline form
■ Explain: clarify meaning in a straightforward fashion, paying attention to the reasons for a situation
■ Illustrate: use examples, graphic organizers, evidence, or analogies to give meaning or answer a problem
■ Interpret: explain the meaning of something or solve a problem using personal opinions, judgments, or
reactions
■ List: see enumerate
■ Narrate: explain an occurrence by describing it as a series of chronological events
■ Outline: describe in an organized fashion, systematically, highlighting only the major points (details not
necessary)
■ Relate: explain the associations or connections between two or more things, events, circumstances, or even
people; may also be used to mean narrate (see narrate)
■ Recount: see narrate
■ Review: critically examine the topic, event, idea, or thing in question, discussing major points and their
strengths and/or weaknesses
■ State: express major points concisely, without using examples or details
■ Summarize: see state
■ Trace: similar to narrate; describe the chronology of an event to reveal its meaning
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Persuasive
In a persuasive, or argument, essay, you choose one idea and show why it is more legitimate or worthy than
another. Your purpose is not to merely show your side, but to convince your reader why your side is best. In order
to convince effectively, you must base your argument on reasoning and logic. The most important strategy for the
persuasive essay is to choose the side that has the best, or most, evidence. If you believe in that side, your argu-
ment will most likely be even stronger (although you don’t have to believe in it to write a good essay).
An important component of a persuasive essay is the inclusion of other sides or points of view. In fact, the
scoring rubric for the ACT essay notes specifically that readers will be looking for counterarguments. Counter-
arguments are presented in order to be refuted or weakened, thereby strengthening the case for your side. How-
ever, it is important to use reasoning and understanding to refute them. If you don’t sound fair, or simply present
emotional reasons why your side is best, you have weakened your argument. You must show that your idea is most
legitimate in part because other ideas are weak or incorrect.
Key verbs that will help you identify a call to write a persuasive essay include:
■ Criticize: express your judgment about the strengths and weaknesses of your topic, and draw conclusions
■ Evaluate: assess the topic based on its strengths and weaknesses, drawing conclusions
■ Justify: defend or uphold your position on the topic, using convincing evidence
■ Prove: confirm or verify that something is real or true using evidence, examples, and sound reasoning
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The scorers of every type of timed essay agree on one significant point: You must support your essay with details,
examples, and evidence. Not only will they strengthen your argument, but they will make your writing come alive.
Common advice for essay exam takers is to include at least one sentence in each paragraph that begins with
the words For example. Compare these sentences:
High school seniors should be allowed open campuses, on which they can arrive in time for their first class, leave
during free periods, and come back to school for their other classes. There is no reason to treat high school sen-
iors like children by making them stay in school all day when they don’t have classes to attend all day. Seniors
can handle the extra responsibility.
High school seniors should be allowed open campuses, on which they can arrive in time for their first class, leave
during free periods, and come back to school for their other classes. Seniors are given freedom and responsi-
bility in many other areas of their lives; for example, the ability to drive a car. Seniors are also permitted to vote,
and to prepare for their futures through the college admissions process or vocational training.
The first example uses generalizations and unsubstantiated claims (“no reason to treat [them] . . . ,” “can handle
the extra responsibility”), which weaken the argument. The second uses evidence, such as the responsibility of
driving and voting, to make the case for open campuses. Remember to back up what you say with evidence,
details, and other types of examples.
The Best Way to Achieve a High Score

Set a schedule that allows for each step in the writing process:
■ Spend the ﬁrst ᎏ
1
4
ᎏ of your time planning your essay.
■ Spend ᎏ
1
2
ᎏ of your time drafting your essay.
■ Spend the last ᎏ
1
4
ᎏ of your time editing and proofreading your essay.
Time Management
Understanding Your Prompt
This advice might seem obvious, but it aims to correct one of the most common mistakes made on essay exams:
Spend time understanding the type of prompt you’ll encounter. Remember that your score depends in large part
on how well you address that prompt (both the ACT and SAT essay directions note that an essay written off topic
will be scored 0; a GED essay that fails to adequately address the prompt also gets the lowest score—a 1). Prepa-
ration materials, both in print and on the Internet, are available for every essay exam, so it’s easy to familiarize
yourself with them.
Many students fail to address the prompt because they didn’t understand what it was asking them to write
about. The best way to determine whether you understand it is to put the prompt in your own words, and then
compare yours with the original. Are they nearly the same in meaning? If you have trouble with this exercise, try
circling the verbs (key words) in the original prompt. These are the same key words you will look for during the
exam. When you understand the key words, you can more easily write the type of essay required by the prompt.
Budgeting Your Time
As you prepare to take your exam, familiarize yourself with its timing. Whether you have 25 minutes or an hour,
you should complete three distinct tasks: planning, writing, and revising. The writing stage will take the longest,
and, for essays that don’t hold grammatical and spelling mistakes against you, the revising stage will be the short-
est. But every essay should include all three.
Planning
Section 1 covered prewriting. Review in particular Lessons 3 and 4, and decide, based on a few practice essays, which
brainstorming technique works best for you in a timed situation. Knowing exactly what you will do when you begin
the exam will not only help you save time, but will also take some of the pressure off, too. Some exit exams (such
as Indiana’s Graduation Qualifying Exam) judge your prewriting notes, outlines, and other graphic organizers,
making it even more important to choose a strategy that you know you do well ahead of time. Even if you are tak-
ing the SAT, and have just 25 minutes for your essay, spend the ﬁrst 3–5 planning.
Your planning time, no matter which prewriting strategy you use, should involve the formation of a thesis state-
ment and three or four main points. Any supporting evidence for, or examples of, those points should be included.
Once you begin planning, don’t be tempted to switch topics, which will waste valuable writing time. Allow a few min-
utes to think through the topic. You may cross off main points that don’t work, or add a new one or two as you go.
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Practice
Set a timer for five minutes. Draft a thesis statement and create an outline for the following sample SAT essay
prompt:
Some people say there are no more heroes, but I see plenty of heroic people all around me. One person I consider a hero
is .
Fill in the blank in the sentence. Write an essay in which you explain your answer.
In Short
The time you spend planning for and preparing to take an essay exam can mean the difference between a great
score and a poor one. Do your homework by researching your exam: Understand how it’s scored, what type of
prompt(s) you’ll encounter, what the directions say, and even how much space you’ll be given to write in. Learn
how to respond quickly to a prompt by practicing: Come up with a thesis statement and outline in just five min-
utes or less.
149
Gather a couple of sample prompts online or from other books about your exam (see the Additional
Resources section for a list of books and online resources). Set the timer for five minutes and practice
writing thesis statements and outlines. The more you practice, the easier it will be to plan your essay
on exam day.

You’ve studied your test and understand what it will look like (including the instructions), and how
it will be scored. You’ve practiced drafting thesis statements and outlines from sample prompts. Now,
it’s time to write.
Drafting
Because you’re writing under a strict time restraint, essay scorers don’t expect your essay to be perfect. However,
they don’t expect a sloppy ﬁrst draft that needs plenty of revising, either. Think instead of creating a “polished
rough draft,”writing that’s more reﬁned than a typical rough draft, well organized, and with as few errors in gram-
mar and mechanics as possible.
L E S S O N
Drafting,
Editing, and
Proofreading
LESSON SUMMARY
This lesson explains how to spend the other three-quarters of your
essay exam time: drafting, editing, and proofreading your essay.
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151

■ Get a good night’s sleep and eat a good meal before the exam.
■ Bring all required items (such as writing instruments, identification, and/or a receipt).
■ If there is a choice, read the prompts quickly to find the one you can think of the most examples and evi-
dence for.
■ Don’t change your mind after making your prompt selection.
■ Underline the key words in your prompt.
■ Write legibly. You won’t get points for neatness, but if they can’t read it, they can’t score it.
■ Wear a watch, and make a plan for budgeting your time.
General Guidelines
■ Use your outline as a guide. Don’t go off on tangents, but adhere to your plan. If you come up with another
strong major point, use it, but don’t freewrite or ramble.
■ Separate your major points into paragraphs; this organization will help your readers follow the logic of your
argument.
■ Avoid unnecessary words, phrases, and sentences. Don’t repeat yourself or try to fill space with meaningless
sentences such as “This is a very interesting question” or “Different people have different opinions on this
subject.”
■ Keep your reader in mind. This person will give you a score based on how well you write and how well you
addressed the topic. Don’t risk alienating or offending this person by using a tone or words that are too for-
mal or too casual.
■ Write neatly. Your readers can’t score what they can’t read or understand. In fact, some exam readers may be
unconsciously influenced by your penmanship. If two essays are of equal quality, and one is written neatly
while the other is in a sloppy, rushed hand, the neater essay will probably receive a slightly higher score. Neat
handwriting is more reader friendly, and it suggests that the writer has more control over the writing
process.
Editing and Proofreading
The revision step is not included in this lesson for an important reason. Revising takes too much time and involves
too much shuffling of text to be accomplished in the time you’re given to write your essay. Recall instead that essay
exams should be “polished rough drafts.” There won’t be extra minutes to move sentences from one paragraph
to another, delete chunks of information, or add many new points (and even if you did have the time, you’d cre-
ate a mess that most readers wouldn’t be able to make sense of). That’s why it’s critical to spend time developing
an outline and to adhere to that plan once you begin drafting. An extra sentence or two inserted later to clarify a
point is fine, but there isn’t the space or time to allow for a real revision. Instead, focus on editing and proofreading
your essay.
–DRAFTING, EDITING, AND PROOFREADING–
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Hints for Taking the Exam

Some timed exams penalize for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other errors in mechanics. All exams
take off points for incomplete answers and failure to address the prompt. Leave some time to go over your work
and correct or improve any errors. Be prepared to spend between 2–5 minutes editing and proofreading your essay.
Check for the following:
In Paragraphs
1. details, examples, and supporting evidence in each paragraph
2. incomplete thoughts
3. rambling, off-topic thoughts
4. paragraph breaks that help the reader see your main points
5. effective transitions between ideas
In Words and Sentences
1. complete sentences (no fragments or run-ons)
2. variety in sentence structure
3. agreement
4. concise word choices
5. clichéd, pretentious language
6. ambiguity
7. passive voice
8. proper punctuation and capitalization
9. correct spelling
Practice
Set aside 20 minutes for this exercise. Resist the urge to read ahead and think about the exercise before you’re ready
to complete it. When you’re ready, set a timer and take the essay exam on the next page.
153
Don’t read the prompt until you’re ready to write for 20 minutes.
Stop!

“Ignorance is bliss.” Write an essay in which you agree or disagree with this statement. Use an example from your per-
sonal experience, current events, history, literature, or another discipline to support your point of view. Use the following
space to write your answer. You may use a scrap piece of paper to formulate ideas and take notes. Do not write on any
other topic; do not skip lines.
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155

In Short
On an essay exam, you need to write a “polished rough draft.”Follow your outline and write carefully but quickly.
Make sure your thoughts are complete and your handwriting is neat. Don’t repeat yourself, or use “ﬁller” words
and phrases. Choose words that concisely and clearly convey your ideas. Leave a few minutes to edit and proof-
read your essay, correcting any mistakes you might have made.
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Like all skills, your ability to write well under pressure will improve with practice. Chose one of the essay
topics from the introduction of this book, set a timer for 30 minutes, and write another essay!

When you’re faced with any new task, it’s helpful to see how others have performed it. That’s why
this ﬁnal lesson is devoted to sample essay prompts and responses. There are two sample exams,
based on the kinds of prompts used on the ACT, GED, Regents’, and SAT exams. Five answers
are given that cover a range of scores.
It’s important to understand why each response received the score it did. You can study the scoring rubric for
your exam either online or in a book, but you’ll learn more by seeing what essays at each level look like. Our rubric
(which may be found in the answer key) is based on those used to score the ACT, GED, Regents’, and SAT essays.
L E S S O N
Sample Essay
Exam Questions
and Answers
LESSON SUMMARY
This final lesson presents two sample essay exam assignments and
several sample responses. The responses are analyzed to give you a
clearer sense of what constitutes a high- and a low-scoring essay.
20
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Sample Essay Exam #1
Assignment: Visual images have the power to inspire thought, evoke emotion, create mood, and even make polit-
ical statements. Complete the statement and write an essay that explains your choice of image. You may choose
any image, including a family photograph, famous work of art, drawing or painting done by a friend, or even a
book illustration. Support your choice by using appropriate examples and details.
Time allowed: 25 minutes
Response #1
You might think a memorable picture would have vivid color, an appealing or inspirational theme, or be something
you might want to display and look at every day. That is not the case with the picture that is most memorable
to me. Rather, it is a large mural, painted in 1937 by the Spanish artist, Pablo Picasso, to protest the bombing
of a small village in northern Spain.
Surprisingly, there is no vivid red color to show the flowing blood. One must imagine this, for the mural is
startlingly gray, black, and white. But there is no avoiding the horror of the images. The figures are not realisti-
cally drawn, but are cubist and abstract, and it is apparent that innocent civilians are being slaughtered. A mother
screams with her mouth wide open, her head tipped back in heart-rending anguish, as she holds her dead baby.
A soldier lies dead on the ground, clutching his broken sword, and three other people are shown in shock and agony.
Animals, including a tortured horse and a crying bird, are also portrayed as innocent victims of the massacre.
Some symbols are open to interpretation. What is the meaning of the bull, which seems simply to be observ-
ing, or of the light bulb emitting rays at the top of the mural? Does the bull symbolize brute force, and does the
light bulb signify that there is hope? Yet there is no doubt that the distorted, horrible images are intended to
shock the viewer. This depiction of human grief is a profound statement of the cruelty and senselessness of war.
Limiting the picture to black and white adds a funereal element to the shocking depiction of the catastrophe.
The memory of the picture cannot be forgotten; it is a metaphor for the senselessness and the horror of
war. While it was painted to protest atrocities in a long ago war, it is as relevant today as the recollection of the
horrors of September 11. Perhaps it should be shown to all those who contemplate starting a war. Would it be
worth it to have another Guernica?
Assessment
On a scale of 1–5, this essay received a score of 4. While the writing skills are effective, the organization could be
improved. For example, the fact that the painting is black and white is mentioned in the second and third para-
graphs, both times noting how the color choice adds to the mood of the painting. Paragraph 3 has a number of
major points; it would be less confusing if each point had its own paragraph.
There is a clear point of view, and the writer has obviously studied not only the painting, but the language
of art criticism as well. Examples are well chosen and numerous. Word choice is varied and sophisticated, and there
are very few errors in grammar and mechanics. If the essay were better organized, and the writer had followed the
five-paragraph form, it could have received a score of 5.
–SAMPLE ESSAY EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS–
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The photograph or picture that moved me the most is .

Response #2
The picture I remember is Guernica. It is by Picasso. It is not reelist. That means the shapes don’t look real but
you know what they are in real life. It is in black and white. It is not in color like most pictures. But it really gets
to you. It shows people getting killed or who are already killed. The images make it so you won’t forget it.
What this picture does is to make you know that war kills people and it is just awful. A baby is killed and a
soldier is killed. A mother is screaming because her baby is dead. It kills people and it kills animals and even if
you are not killed you will probly be screaming or crying. There are lots of ways that life gets destroyed by war.
The painting shows many of them.
This picture could be for any war it doesn’t matter. In that way it is a universal message. There is not any-
thing in the picture that tells you where it is happening.You don’t know who the people are. There are wars hapen-
ing today. People suffer now like in Guernica.You remeber it because it makes you upset and you wish there would
never be a war. Then people wouldn’t have to suffer. This picture is memrable because you remember how the peo-
ple suffered and they probly didn’t do anything.
Assessment
On a scale of 1–5, this essay received a 2. Organizationally, it has three paragraphs and each contains a main idea.
However, two of them also include the introduction and conclusion. While they don’t detract from or confuse the
author’s ideas, there are numerous errors in grammar and spelling. Most sentences are very short, and the lack
of variety detracts from the essay. A strong point of view is maintained, but it gets lost in the unsophisticated and
overly informal vocabulary.
Sample Essay Exam #2
Assignment: Complete the sentence above with an appropriate phrase. Then write an essay supporting your com-
pleted statement.
Time allowed: 45 minutes
Response #1
Have you ever imagined how your life would be different if a key person were not in it, like a mother, father, spouse,
or child? Some people are so integral to making us who we are that without them, our very identity would be
changed. My grandmother is a key figure in my life who has left an indelible impression on me. She is a woman of
great influence because of her stability, her work ethic, and her independent spirit.
Grandma is the matriarch of our family. Because she has a close relationship with us and a great deal of
wisdom, her seven children and 16 grandchildren often seek her out for advice. We look to her for advice on every-
thing from how to potty-train a toddler to how to break up with a boyfriend. Grandma relishes the fact that we
ask her for advice, but she never offers it without being sought out. She is like a rock: never changing. My own
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An influential person is one who leaves a footprint in the sand of our soul. To me, the most influential
person I can think of is .

parents got divorced when I was 12, but I always knew that Grandma’s house was a source of stability when the
rest of my world seemed tumultuous. This sense of security has helped me face other challenges as they come
along in life, like when we moved during my freshman year of high school.
Grandma also inspired me to pursue my goals. Because of the trials she faced without shrinking back, I am
able to have the strength to work hard and try to realize my dreams. Grandma didn’t have it easy. Because she
was a single parent from a fairly young age, she had to work and sacrifice to support her children. She worked
full time cleaning offices to save for her children’s college educations. She received no help from the outside and
was totally independent from her own family’s help. Grandma always stressed the importance of education to
all of us in achieving our goals. Grandma’s example of hard work and her emphasis on education have strength-
ened me to pursue a college degree, and eventually a PhD. Even though I will have to work to get through school,
I know that if Grandma worked while raising seven children alone, I can handle taking care of myself. Her tireless
example is truly inspirational. She has also encouraged me in my chosen career, teaching, because she feels it
will blend well with family life when I eventually have my own children.
Perhaps the most significant legacy Grandma has left me is her example of always voicing her opinion despite
what others may think. Grandma would never bow down to prejudice; she never cared what people would say behind
her back. In an age where segregation in social circles was common, Grandma’s dinners after church on Sundays
would look like a United Nations meeting. She would include all races and nationalities, and became close friends
with a very diverse group of people. If someone tried to put down another race, she would quickly voice her dis-
agreement. This refusal to be swayed by “popular” opinion had a huge impact on me, and is a guiding principle in
my life today.
I certainly would not be the person I am today, inside or out, without the influence of my grandmother upon
my life. I can only aspire to imitate her in her stability, her work ethic, and her refusal to be silenced by other peo-
ple’s disapproval.
Assessment
On a scale of 1–5, this essay received a 5. It shows an insightful understanding of the assignment. The writer chose
a strong example of an influential person, and then skillfully developed her ideas with specific examples. We learn
much about Grandma, and the writer constantly connects these details back to the main idea: that Grandma had
a huge impact on her life in three major areas. The writer shows an excellent command of language. There are no
grammatical errors, and she varies her sentence structure to make the reading interesting and enjoyable. This essay
fully addresses all areas of the rubric in a strong way and is a good example of clear competence in writing.
Response #2
When someone comes into our lives for a long time, he or she leaves a footprint on our soul. I would say the biggest
footprint in my soul comes from my little brother, Mario. Even though we’ve never had a conversation, Mario is a
very big influence for three main reasons.
Mario is a peaceful person. He has a brain disease called lissencephaly. That happens when the brain is not
bumpy and grooved like it’s supposed to be. He has been like this from birth, and there’s no cure. But Mario is
like a little angel. He sits in his wheelchair and plays with his toys. Even though he is 8 years old, he can’t walk
or talk. But he has an inner peace that shines in his eyes. He never seems to worry about anything. He hardly
ever cries or gets upset. He isn’t impatient like the rest of us. He just takes each day, each hour, each minute
as it comes. He has taught me about being peaceful no matter what is going on around me.
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Mario has also taught me about unconditional love. Unconditional love means you love someone not
because of what they can do for you, or what they have done for you, but just because you love them.
Mario also has influenced me to enjoy the simple gifts in life. I can run, walk, talk, and learn. Most of my friends
complain about homework, girlfriends, and petty, stupid fights with their friends. But Mario, without saying any-
thing, reminds me that it’s all good. I have more than he does, and I should be content with what I have. I don’t
need to have the newest CD or my own car to be happy.
Not many people have a special gift like Mario in their life. I am really lucky because he has influenced me, I
think, to be a better person. I’ve learned a lot about life from him, how to live and how not to live.
Assessment
On a scale of 1–5, this essay received a 3. The student shows a basic understanding of the assignment, using the
example of his brother Mario to develop a response to the prompt. There is good development, particularly in the
second paragraph, with specific examples. However, the second body paragraph, about unconditional love, is
unsupported. Detracting from the essay are a very basic vocabulary and little sentence variety. This is a fair response
with good ideas that would benefit from more sophisticated grammar and vocabulary and more concrete support.
Response #3
My mother is the person who influenced me the most. She is a very hard worker. She is a very devoted mother,
and she is tough.
My mother works at Macy’s, cleaning the rest rooms and straightening up the stock after the store closes.
It is not an easy job, she does it from 12 midnight til 8 in the morning. My mother wanted to go to college, but
her parents didn’t have no money. She really want us to all go. I would love to make her proud of myself. That would
be a great reward to her for all she did for us.
My mother cares about all the things that no other mothers pay no attention to anymore. She won’t let
me hang out with my friends without calling, no boys in the house when she’s not home, I have to cook and clean,
etc. She is a very devoted mother.
One day, some lady almost ran me over in front of my house. My mother went out there and tryd to find
what the cause was. Well, the lady starting screaming at my mother, and she was the one at fault! My mother
yelled back and even called the cops on this lady, she isn’t afraid of anybody.
I think I will probably turn out to be just like my mother, and that would be fine with me.
Assessment
On a scale of 1–5, this essay received a 2. It shows a basic understanding of the assignment, but little development.
The writer lays out three ways her mother has been influential in her life, but then fails to adequately develop them
with examples. In the second body paragraph, the writer never makes a connection between her mother’s strict-
ness and being a devoted mother. In addition, she doesn’t really discuss how this has affected her. There is a weak
introduction with no real “hook,”and a short conclusion that weakens the organization of the essay. The sentences
are simple and contain noticeable errors, particularly run-on sentences. Overall, this response shows marginal com-
petence in writing.
161

Practice
Assess the essay you wrote for the practice exercise in Lesson 19. On a scale of 1–5, how would you rate your essay?
What are its strengths? What are its weaknesses? Identify the things you did well in your essay. Then, list the ways
you think your essay could be improved.
Congratulations!
You’ve completed 20 lessons and have learned much about how to write essays that are more effective. To see just
how much your skills have improved, turn the page and take the posttest. You should see a dramatic difference
in your understanding of the writing process and in your ability to write clearly and effectively in an essay format.
To keep your skills sharp, write regularly. Start a journal or blog, write letters to friends, take a composition
class, or join a writer’s group. In addition, pay attention to what you read. Your writing will be positively inﬂu-
enced by good writing. See the Additional Resources section for suggestions.
162

To gauge how much your essay-writing skills and your understanding of the writing process have
improved, take the following posttest. Though the questions differ from those on the pretest, the for-
mat and material covered are the same, so you will be able to directly compare results.
When you complete the test, check your answers, and then compare your score with the one you received
on the pretest. Your new score should be signiﬁcantly higher, but if it’s not, review the lessons that teach the skills
on which you tested poorly. Whatever your score, keep this book on hand for reference as you continue on your
academic journey.
You can use the space on the pages following Part 2 to record your answers and write your essay. Or, if you
prefer, simply circle the answers directly for Part 1. Obviously, though, if this book doesn’t belong to you, use sep-
arate sheets of lined paper to write your responses.
Take as much time as you need for Part 1 (although 20 minutes is an average completion time). When you’re
ﬁnished, check your answers against the answer key at the end of this book. Each answer tells you which lesson
deals with the concept addressed in that question. Set aside another 30 minutes to complete Part 2.
Posttest
163

–LEARNINGEXPRESS ANSWER SHEET–
165
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20. a b c d
a b c d
a b c d
a b c d e
a b c d
a b
a b c d
a b c d
a b c d
a b c d
a b c d
a b c d
a b c d
a b c d
a b
a b c d
a b c d
a b c d
a b c d
a b

Part 1
1. If your essay is well written, there’s no need to completely fulfill the assignment.
a. true
b. false
2. In general, you should write for which audience?
a. your classmates
b. your teacher, admissions officer, or exam reader
c. yourself
d. a general reader
3. Which of the following introductory tasks does this introduction fail to do?
In this essay, I would like to consider why the Great Depression occurred. Some people contend that it was
caused by the stock market crash of 1929. Many economists point to the Smoot Hawley Tariff Act as the real
reason. However, there is strong evidence to suggest that neither of these factors caused the Great Depression.
a. Provide context.
b. State the thesis.
c. Grab the reader’s attention.
d. Set the tone for the essay.
4. In the following paragraph, which is the topic sentence?
Too much sun can produce many negative consequences. First, it can dry your skin, which in turn reduces its
elasticity and speeds the aging process. Second, too much sun can burn unprotected skin and cause permanent
discoloration and damage to the dermis. Most importantly, long-term exposure of unprotected skin can result in
skin cancer.
a. the first sentence
b. the second sentence
c. the third sentence
d. the fourth sentence
5. Which two organizational strategies does the paragraph in question 4 use?
a. order of importance and comparison/contrast
b. cause/effect and chronology
c. classification and chronology
d. order of importance and cause/effect
6. Three supporting ideas should be sufficient for any essay assignment.
a. true
b. false
–POSTTEST–
167

7. A single-sentence paragraph is appropriate if
a. you don’t have any support for the assertion in that sentence.
b. you have too many long paragraphs throughout the essay.
c. it’s a particularly well-written sentence.
d. you want to emphasize the idea in that sentence.
8. Read the following essay assignment carefully. Which of the sentences best describes the kind of essay that
you should write?
In Civilization and Its Discontents, Freud explains why he believes civilized people are unhappy. Summarize
his theory and evaluate it.
a. Describe the main points of Freud’s theory and assess the validity of that theory.
b. Define “civilization” and show examples of civilized communities.
c. Describe several examples that illustrate Freud’s theory.
d. Describe the main points of Freud’s theory and express your opinion about his theory.
9. When revising an essay, which of the following issues should you address first?
a. grammar and spelling
b. organization and transitions
c. thesis and support
d. introductory paragraph
10. Which of the following sentences has the most effective word choice?
a. She was scared.
b. She was petrified.
c. She was frightened.
d. She was scared stiff.
11. Which of the following would be a problem in a concluding paragraph?
a. It doesn’t restate the thesis.
b. It frames the essay.
c. It arouses the reader’s emotions.
d. It doesn’t bring up any ideas that aren’t related to the thesis.
12. Which of the following is typically the best organizational strategy in an argument?
a. order of importance (least to most important)
b. order of importance (most to least important)
c. cause and effect
d. comparison and contrast
–POSTTEST–
168

13. Identify the grammatical problem in the following sentence.
After he mastered the trumpet, he learned the guitar, and then learned how to play the piano, he went on to
become one of the greatest jazz pianists in the world.
a. sentence fragment
b. agreement
c. run-on sentence
d. incorrect word choice
14. On an essay exam, most of your time should be spent
a. planning.
b. drafting.
c. proofreading.
d. editing.
15. An introduction should never be more than one paragraph long.
a. true
b. false
16. What is the main problem with the following sentence?
After his ﬁght with Alan, he swore he would never let anyone use his car again without his permission.
a. It’s a run-on sentence.
b. It’s not properly punctuated.
c. It’s unnecessarily wordy.
d. Its pronouns may be confusing.
17. A thesis should be which of the following?
a. short
b. clear
c. assertive
d. both a and b
e. both b and c
18. Outlining should typically occur
a. before you brainstorm.
b. after you brainstorm.
c. after you write your ﬁrst rough draft.
d. before you revise.
–POSTTEST–
169

19. Which of the underlined words in the following paragraph are transitions?
Too much (1) sun can produce many negative consequences. First (2), it can dry your skin, which in turn
reduces its elasticity and (3) speeds the aging process. Second (4), too much sun can burn unprotected skin and
cause permanent discoloration and damage to the dermis (5). Most importantly (6), long-term exposure of
unprotected skin can result in (7) skin cancer.
a. 1, 2, and 3
b. 2, 4, and 5
c. 2, 6, and 7
d. 2, 4, and 6
20. Credibility is best established by which of the following?
a. expertise and freedom from bias
b. expertise and education
c. education and bias
d. reputation and freedom from bias
Part 2
Set a timer for 30 minutes. When you’re ready to begin, read the essay assignment that follows carefully. Use the
space provided to write your essay. Stop writing when 20 minutes have elapsed, even if you haven’t completed your
essay. When you’re ﬁnished, look at the scoring chart in the answer key to estimate your essay’s score.
Essay Assignment
Many people feel that a movie isn’t a success if it doesn’t force viewers to think about an important issue or idea.
Others argue that movies are successful as long as they entertain us; they don’t have to have any ideological, polit-
ical, or social agenda. What do you think? Is being entertaining enough? Or should movies do more? Why? Pro-
vide speciﬁc examples to support your position.
–POSTTEST–
170

This section provides answers, sample answers, and explanations for the pretest, practice exercises, and
posttest. Use the answers and explanations to assess your understanding of the lessons. But keep in
mind that many of the exercises call for a written response, and those responses will be different for
each person who completes the exercises. Suggested answers will demonstrate how one student successfully com-
pleted the assignment.
Pretest, Part 1
If you miss any of the answers, you can ﬁnd help for that question type in the lesson(s) shown to the right of the
answer.
Answer Key
173
QUESTION ANSWER LESSON
1. b. 11
2. c. 8, 12
3. d. 12
4. a. 1
5. a. 16
6. d. 6, 7
7. b. 2
8. c. 6

–ANSWER KEY–
174
9. b. 5, 8
10. b. 9
11. c. 10
12. a. 13
13. d. 15
14. c. 18
15. a. 3, 4
16. b. 14–17
17. e. 10
18. b. 9, 15
19. c. 16
20. d. 11
Pretest, Part 2
Use the following scoring chart to evaluate your essay. First, score your essay yourself (don’t worry if some of the
requirements are unfamiliar—a highly accurate score is not as important as the practice you received in writing
a timed essay). Then, ask someone else (an English teacher or a friend with strong writing skills is ideal) to score
it. After you assign a number for each of the categories shown on the chart, average the numbers to get an over-
all score.
CHARACTERISTIC 5 4 3 2 1
Response to Completely Fulfills all of the Fulfills most of the Fails to fulfill a Does not fulfill
Assignment fulfills the requirements of requirements of major part of the the assignment.
assignment; the assignment. the assignment. assignment.
may go beyond
the requirements
to a new level.
Thesis Is clear, assertive, Is clear and Is suggested but Is weak and/or No recognizable
and original. assertive. may be weak or unclear. thesis.
unclear.

CHARACTERISTIC 5 4 3 2 1
Development Several strong Several supporting Offers some sup- Few supporting Little or no
supporting ideas ideas are offered; porting ideas but ideas are support is
are offered; each most are ade- not enough to make offered; the ideas offered; ideas
idea is thoroughly quately developed, a strong case; that are provided are poorly
developed. but one or two are ideas may be are insufﬁciently developed.
underdeveloped. underdeveloped. developed.
Focus All ideas are Most ideas are A majority of ideas Some focus, but No focus;
directly and directly and are related, but many ideas are most ideas
clearly related to clearly related there are some unrelated. are unrelated
the thesis. to the thesis. loose connections to the thesis
and/or digressions. or topic.
Argumentation Addresses Addresses most Addresses some Fails to address Does not address
counterarguments, counterarguments, counterarguments most counterargu- counterargu-
makes conces- establishes credi- but may neglect ments; does not ments, establish
sions, and bility for most some major coun- establish credibility credibility,
establishes sources; may terpoints; estab- for most sources; or make
credibility. neglect to make lishes credibility does not make concessions.
concessions. for some sources. concessions.
Organization Ideas are well Ideas are Essay has organiz- Organizing No organizing
organized; struc- well organized; ing principle, but principle may principle; weak
ture is clear; good transitions pattern may be dis- be unclear; or missing transi-
provides strong throughout most rupted; some ideas many transitions tions throughout
transitions of essay. are out of order; are missing. the essay.
throughout. some transitions
may be weak or
missing.
Sentences Ideas come Most ideas are Sentences may be Sentences are A majority of sen-
across clearly; clear; may occa- cluttered with often wordy or tences are wordy
variety in sen- sionally be wordy. unnecessary words ambiguous, or ambiguous,
tence structure. or repetition; ambi- interfering with often interfering
guity may interfere clarity. with clarity.
with clarity.
Word Choice Precise and care- Most words are Mix of general and Mostly general Word choice
ful word choice; exact and appro- speciﬁc words; inexact words; often ineffective
avoids jargon priate; an occa- some pretentious word choice some- or inappropriate.
and pretentious sionally ineffective language or jargon. times inappropriate.
language. word choice.
Grammar Virtually error free. A few grammatical Several grammati- Many grammatical Most sentences
errors, but none cal errors; may errors; often inter- have grammatical
that interfere with interfere with fere with clarity. errors, often inter-
clarity. clarity. fering with clarity.
Mechanics Virtually error free. A few mechanical Several mechanical Many mechanical Most sentences
errors, but none errors; some may errors that interfere have mechanical
that interfere with interfere with with clarity. errors that inter-
clarity. clarity. fere with clarity.
–ANSWER KEY–
175

Lesson 1
Practice 1
1. Answers should mention a testing situation in which the scorers are not known to the test taker. There should
be an explanation of the need to understand the test, especially its scoring rubric, in order to satisfy the
requirements of the test.
2. a. In this case, you have been given a specific audience for whom to write: a Martian. However, a person
(teacher, evaluator, or scorer) will also read your essay. Keep both audiences in mind as you write.
b. The fact that your audience is a Martian, coupled with his question, can lead to an assumption that he has
little knowledge of America. He may not have any knowledge of the concept of democracy, for example,
or of freedom of speech. In fact, he may not even understand the words country or nation. For this assign-
ment, you will have to explain yourself carefully, assuming no prior knowledge from your audience.
Practice 2
Answers must include a verb that specifies the goal. For example:
My goal is to explain the conflict that Hughes felt and show how he resolved his conflict.
Lesson 2
Practice 1
1.
SUBJECT DIRECTIONS
change in citizen’s attitudes toward federal government in last decade describe
what I think caused this change explain
impact of this attitude on power of government assess
2.
SUBJECT DIRECTIONS
whether Celie has control over her destiny answer and explain
3.
SUBJECT DIRECTIONS
current definition of a planet describe
differences between that definition and definitions of star and asteroid contrast
how will current solar system change if size is a deterring factor in planet status explain
–ANSWER KEY–
176

Practice 2
Answers should be similar to the following:
1. Tell what citizens’ attitudes toward the federal government used to be and what they are now. Tell what I
think caused the change and why, and explain how I think this attitude has affected the power of the fed-
eral government.
2. Tell whether I think Celie has control over her future and why, using specific examples from the novel to
support my answer.
3. Tell readers what the current definition of a planet is, and how it differs from the definitions of stars and
asteroids. Explain how the solar system as we know it today will change if size becomes a defining charac-
teristic of a planet.
Lesson 3
Practice 1
Answers will vary. Here’s one possibility:
When I was in the ninth grade, it was chemistry class, the first exam, and a lot of people were cheating. They
all had cheat sheets and were even passing them back and forth. I was new, and I made some friends but
wasn’t really close to anyone, and I studied hard for the exam. I was really angry. The teacher looked up once or
twice but didn’t see anything. I was having trouble with one of the problems and thought about cheating, too.
But I didn’t have a cheat sheet. I knew if I told on the cheaters, it would mean trouble—didn’t want to be an
outcast. After the test, I typed a note and put it on the teacher’s desk. Ms. Waller confronted us the next
day—tensions were high! Cheaters were looking around trying to figure out who told—being new was lucky
because no one suspected me—they blamed Pearl. Got really mean. I felt guilty. I confessed to Rob. But he
ended up telling. Next day was one of the worst in my life. Someone threw food at me in the cafeteria, and every-
one started calling me “rat,” and worse. That name has stuck with me for two years, and it hasn’t been easy
making friends. I don’t know if I’d do the same thing again. It’s so hard to know what is the right thing to do,
and how to fit in at the same time.
Practice 2
Here’s an example:
A strong determining factor for my sense of identity is being a Vietnamese American.
• one language for home and neighborhood, another for school
• can’t always express myself with American friends
• my parents get mad when I forget how to say something in Vietnamese
• having to serve as translator for my parents
• my accent
• how hard it was to learn to read English
–ANSWER KEY–
177

• shyness, esp. in classroom
• people assuming I don’t speak English
• stereotypes—I don’t always eat rice!
• feeling most comfortable with other Vietnamese Americans
Lesson 4
Practice 1
Answers should include all five questions (who, what, where, when, and why). Following are sample responses.
What are the benefits of school uniforms?
Who would decide what the students would wear?
Who would pay for the uniforms?
What about families who can’t afford uniforms?
Why should the government make a decision about school children’s clothing?
What effect would the cost of uniforms have on clothing budgets? (might save money)
Who would enforce the policy?
What about accessories, like jewelry or belts? Would they be regulated?
What about a sense of community? Would it be strengthened by uniforms?
Who might be upset or angry about uniforms?
Where are school uniforms required by public schools?
When would uniforms have to be worn? After school activities? School trips?
Practice 2
There are many ways to create a map for this assignment. Please see the example on page 40 in Lesson 4.
Lesson 5
Practice 1
Responses will vary. Here is a possibility:
Assignment: Identify a factor that you believe figures strongly in a child’s personality
development. Explain how that factor may influence the child.
Broad topic: Factors influencing a child’s personality development
Narrowed topic: Parents
Sufficiently narrowed topic: Parents who work outside the home
Further narrowed topic: What kind of childcare parents choose for their children
–ANSWER KEY–
178

Topic turned into a question: How does the kind of childcare working parents choose affect a child’s per-
sonality development?
Tentative thesis: The kind of childcare working parents choose has a powerful impact on a
child’s personality development.
Practice 2
A successful response might look like this:
Assignment: Discuss how sports influence popular culture. Use specific examples from the
sports world.
Broad topic: How sports influence popular culture
Narrowed topic: How sports influence trends in fashion
Sufficiently narrowed topic: How sports influence fashion and how sports heroes contribute to the rise of a
highly profitable sneaker industry
Topic turned into a question: How have certain sports figures helped popularize their sport and in turn
influence fashion trends in sneakers among their fans?
Tentative thesis: Charismatic sports figures can popularize their sport, widening their fan base,
and in turn endorse products such as a particular sneaker that becomes a
must-have trend in popular culture.
Lesson 6
Practice 1
Here is a sample chronological outline for the freewriting exercise in Lesson 3.
1. Studied all week to get ready for exam.
2. Taking exam—seeing everyone cheating. Very angry.
3. Typing up note at home.
4. Leaving note on teacher’s desk.
5. Teacher confronting class.
6. People deciding it was Pearl who told on them.
7. Begin mean to Pearl.
9. Feeling guilty.
10. Telling Rob.
11. Walking into cafeteria and having people make fun of me.
12. People avoiding me for weeks.
–ANSWER KEY–
179

Practice 2
Here’s an outline for the same freewriting exercise using cause and effect as the main organizing principle.
How I came to be called “The Rat”:
1. Start with walking into the cafeteria and people pointing at me, saying, “Look, there’s the Rat.”
2. Describe how I’d left an anonymous note for the teacher.
• describe why—the test
3. Explain how Pearl was blamed.
4. Describe dilemma—wanting to take blame off Pearl but not wanting to be hated by others.
5. Talk about consequences of doing what I thought was right:
• nickname
• people avoiding me
6. Describe how I feel about it now
• still think I did the right thing, but should have given my name from the beginning
• my fear of being outcast made me give anonymous note; that way the teacher couldn’t help Pearl, or
me, until it was too late.
• learned that if I think something is right (or wrong), I should stand up for it (or against it) totally, not
just halfway.
Lesson 7
Practice 1
Here’s an outline using order of importance for the school uniforms issue:
School uniforms: a good idea
1. Students and parents will save time and money.
• spend less time worrying about what to wear
• spend less time shopping
• spend less money on clothes (fewer clothes needed)
2. Students will be more conﬁdent.
• will equalize students who can afford the most stylish, expensive clothes with those who can’t
• will take the focus away from appearance so students can focus more on schoolwork
º with more focus on work, students will do better in school
• will help students feel like they belong
º students need to feel like they belong to feel good about themselves
º uniforms create a sense of community and belonging
3. Students will be better disciplined.
• uniforms create a tone of seriousness
• uniforms make it easier to focus on schoolwork
–ANSWER KEY–
180

Practice 2
Part of an outline using comparison and contrast for the childcare issue might look like this:
Two options: nanny or daycare
1. One caregiver vs. many
a. with nanny, child has one primary caregiver
i. develops strong bond with one person
ii. develops feeling of trust and security
b. with daycare, child has several caregivers
i. more difﬁcult to develop strong bond with one person
2. One child vs. many
a. with nanny, child gets great deal of individual attention (even if there are siblings)
i. all of child’s needs are attended to
b. with daycare, child competes for attention with other children
i. some of child’s needs may not be attended to (at least not immediately)
ii. child will develop social skills more rapidly by being in company of other children
Lesson 8
Practice 1
Here’s a possible response:
I never spend much time planning an essay. A lot of times I procrastinate and wait until the day before the paper
is due to get started—especially if I don’t like the assignment. Then I’ll just sit down and write a draft. Some-
times I get stuck for a long time on the introduction. I have to have my introduction done before I write the body
of an essay. Sometimes I get stuck too because I have trouble organizing my ideas. I usually don’t outline unless
my teacher says I have to. I should start doing outlines (at least rough ones) and start working on my essays
earlier. I also need to make sure I am clearer about my audience and purpose. I think I’d write better (and be more
relaxed) if I did some brainstorming as soon as I got the assignment, then drafted a thesis and outline, and then
wrote a draft.
Practice 2
Here are some successful responses:
1. Briarwood offers everything I’m looking for in a college: a renowned child psychology department; a small,
beautiful campus not too far from home; and opportunities to develop my leadership skills through
extracurricular programs.
2. The use of DNA evidence in the appeals of death penalty convictions has changed the nature of the con-
troversy surrounding this important issue.
3. My fascination with American history began when I read The Grapes of Wrath.
4. The Internet must remain a completely uncensored environment.
–ANSWER KEY–
181

Lesson 9
Practice 1
The following is the most logical way to divide the text into paragraphs (although minor variations are accept-
able). Notice that each of the three parts of the personality gets its own paragraph. The topic sentence in each of
those paragraphs (underlined) describes the main characteristic of that part of the personality.
Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, made many contributions to the science of psychology. One of his great-
est contributions was his theory of the personality. According to Freud, the human personality is made up of three parts:
the id, the ego, and the superego.
The id is the part of the personality that exists only in the subconscious. According to Freud, the id has no direct
contact with the reality. It is the innermost core of our personality and operates according to the pleasure principle. That
is, it seeks immediate gratification for its desires, regardless of external realities or consequences. It is not even aware
that external realities or consequences exist.
The ego develops from the id and is the part of the personality in contact with the real world. The ego is conscious
and therefore aims to satisfy the subconscious desire of the id as best it can without the individual’s environment.When
it can’t satisfy those desires, it tried to control or suppress the id. The ego functions according to the reality principle.
The superego is the third and final part of the personality to develop. This part of the personality contains our
moral values and ideals, our notion of what’s right and wrong. The superego gives us the “rules” that help the ego con-
trol the id. For example, a child wants a toy that belongs to another child (id). He checks his environment to see if it’s
possible to take that toy (ego). He can, and does. But then he remembers that it’s wrong to take something that belongs
to someone else (superego) and returns the toy.
Practice 2
Answers will vary. Topic sentences are in boldface.
1. The demand for childcare workers is on the rise. The government’s Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)
reports that employment in child daycare services will grow over 300% in the next decade. In 2002, about
750,000 people worked in child daycare services. By 2012, that number is expected to be about
1,050,000—an increase of more than 300,000 jobs.
2. When I was in kindergarten, I wanted to be an astronaut. When I was in junior high school, I wanted to be a
doctor. When I was in high school, I wanted to be a teacher. Today, I’m 35 and I’m a firefighter. I’m none of
the things I thought I wanted to be—and I couldn’t be happier.
3. While the proposed tax referendum sounds good, it’s actually bad news for most citizens of Algonquin
county. It will not reduce taxes for middle-income families. In fact, middle-income families with children will
pay 10% more per year, and families without children will pay 20% more. Further, the referendum actually
decreases taxes for the wealthiest tax bracket. In fact, taxpayers in the highest income bracket will pay
10% less per year if the referendum is passed.
–ANSWER KEY–
182

Lesson 10
Practice 1 and 2
Look again at the outline for school uniforms (a response for Practice 1 of Lesson 7), noticing how each of the
three main supporting ideas has several supporting ideas of its own. In the following, you’ll find additional sup-
port for one of those ideas. Notice the mix of specific examples, facts, reasons, descriptions, and expert opinion.
• Students will be more confident.
º will equalize students who can afford the most stylish, expensive clothes with those who can’t
º students often judge each other based on dress
• the most popular kids are usually the ones who can also keep up with the most recent fashion trends. “In
any school yard, all you have to do is look around to see how important clothing is in defining groups and
determining social status. The most popular students are always the ones in the designer clothes. The
least popular are often dressed in clothes that are two, three, or more fashion cycles out of date.”
Edward Jones, “The Clothes Make the Kid,” American View magazine.
• Status is often determined by how you dress, not who you are.
º A shirt that has an alligator or polo pony isn’t just a shirt—it’s a status symbol
º “A student who wears ‘retro’ clothing will often be seen as ‘cool’ or ‘hip,’ while someone who wears poly-
ester trousers and a pocket protector will be stereotyped as a ‘nerd’ or ‘dork’—even though he may
be just as ‘hip’ as she.” Jamie Ernstein, professor of Cultural Studies, personal interview.
• Logos and labels have now become part of the design in clothing. A T-shirt that used to have a picture or
geometric design will now sport the company’s logo.
• If everyone has to wear uniforms, the social divisions created by those who can afford designer clothing
and those who can’t will disappear.
• Students will be judged for who they are, not for what they wear.
Lesson 11
Practice 1
Here are two sample profiles and sentences that establish each source’s credibility.
“Fact” 1: The average television channel shows 579 acts of violence in a 24-hour period.
Source: Emily Rhodes
Profile: Professor of Communications, New Jersey State University
Founder, American Society for Media Responsibility
Author of four books on the relationship between television and violence
Sentence: According to Emily Rhodes, Professor of Communications at New Jersey State University and
author of four books on the relationship between television and violence, the average television
channel shows 579 acts of violence in a 24-hour period.
–ANSWER KEY–
183

“Fact” 2: Violent crimes committed by juveniles have quadrupled since 1973.
Source: Children’s Watch
Profile: Nonprofit organization
Studies children’s issues, including crime, child labor, abuse, etc.
Affiliated with New York State University
Their annual report, “The State of Our Children,” is required reading for the UN, WHO, and
governmental policymakers
Sentence: Children’s Watch, a nonprofit dedicated to researching children’s issues, claims that the num-
ber of violent crimes committed by juveniles has quadrupled since 1973—a fact that won’t be
overlooked by the government, since the group’s annual report, “The State of Our Children,” is
required reading for members of both the House of Representatives and the Senate.
Practice 2
Answers will vary, but must contain all four elements.
1. Thesis: Despite the dangers, the Internet should remain a totally free and uncensored medium.
2. Supporting Points:
• Censorship would violate the right to free speech.
• Censorship of material on the Internet could set a precedent for censorship of other media.
• The courts would be clogged with cases regarding censorship because the definition of whatever
material should be censored would necessarily be vague and subject to interpretation.
3. The Opposition’s Position:
• Hate speech, when it incites violence, does not fall under protection of the First Amendment.
• Nudity, cursing, and violence are limited on television, which kids can access 24 hours a day. How is
the Internet different? Kids can access it 24 hours a day, too, with potentially no one around to con-
trol which sites they visit.
• Determining what kind of material should be censored will lead to a nationwide examination of our
values.
4. Paragraph Acknowledging the Opposition:
Most importantly, censorship on the Internet violates one of the principles upon which this country was
founded: freedom of speech. It is true that some sites present lewd or hateful images and ideas, but this
kind of hate speech can be found anywhere, in all kinds of publications and all kinds of media. The Internet
just makes it easier for people to find this information. If someone really wants to commit an act of vio-
lence, a website isn’t what going to push him or her into committing a hate crime.
Lesson 12
Practice 1
This example uses surprising facts to catch the reader’s attention:
–ANSWER KEY–
184

At Jamestown Senior High, an amazing thing happened. In just one year, student thefts dropped from 58 to 18,
assaults plunged from 32 to 5, and total disciplinary action plummeted from 112 to 42. The dramatic change
at Jamestown High was created by the institution of a simple policy, one that should be instituted at middle
and high schools nationwide: school uniforms.
Practice 2
In this introduction, an anecdote is used:
Paula always wore the same two or three outfits. She decided she’d rather be made fun of for wearing the same
clothes all the time than for wearing the cheap, no-name gear that made up most of her wardrobe. At least these
outfits gave her a shot at hanging out with the cool kids. At least she could proudly display the brand-name logos.
Unfortunately, Paula’s attitude toward clothing is all too common among students who spend more time
worrying about what they (and others) are wearing than about what they’re supposed to be learning. School uni-
forms can help change that—and help fix a number of other problems that are plaguing our schools.
Lesson 13
Practice 1 and 2
Following are two possible conclusions for the school uniforms essay.
Closing with a question:
Of course, school uniforms won’t solve every problem. Low-income kids will still be poor, violent students may still
be violent, and advertisements will still assail us with the message that you can get what you want (the right
guy, the right girl, the right friends, the right job) by buying and wearing trendy clothes. But school uniforms can
help equalize the incredible division between the fashion “haves” and the “have nots”; they can improve discipline,
and they can improve learning. In the same year the disciplinary incidents went down at Jamestown High, SAT
scores went up. Wouldn’t you like your school to do the same?
Closing with a call to action:
School uniforms aren’t a cure-all, but in all of the public schools where school uniforms are now required, atten-
dance and test scores are up, and disciplinary incidents are down. Students attest to feeling as if they’re part
of a community, and most say they like not having to worry about what to wear. More importantly, most say they
actually feel better about themselves and school than they ever did before.
The power to create this kind of positive change is in your hands. Talk to your PTA and school board repre-
sentatives. Show them the facts. Start a campaign to make school uniforms part of your child’s education.You’ll
be glad you did—and so will they.
–ANSWER KEY–
185

Lesson 14
Practice 1
Following is an additional supporting paragraph. Notice how its ﬁrst sentence uses the word example.
Here’s another example. Imagine you’re at a diner. When the server hands you your check, you notice that she made
a mistake, charging you $12.58 instead of $15.58. But you don’t tell her. Instead, you pay $12.58 and pocket the
$3.00 difference.
Practice 2
This example revises and expands one of the paragraphs in the lying with silence essay:
Original:
I’m guilty, too. I knew my friend’s boyfriend was also seeing someone else. But I kept quiet. I helped keep her in the
dark. Then, when she found him out—and found out that I’d known about it—it was terrible. It destroyed their
relationship and our friendship.
Revised and expanded:
I’m guilty of silent deceptions, too. For example, last year, I discovered that my friend Amy’s boyfriend, Scott, was
also seeing someone else. But I kept quiet about it because I didn’t want to hurt Amy. A few weeks later, some-
one else told her about Scott’s two-timing—and told her that I knew about it.
Amy couldn’t believe I deceived her like that. She felt just as betrayed as if I’d lied to her face about it. Scott’s
deception ruined their relationship. My deception ruined our friendship.
–ANSWER KEY–
186

Lesson 15
Practice 1
Your table should look something like this:
3 when silence is a lie addressing possible counterargument (that
being silent isn’t lying)
4 man who buys a necklace he knows is stolen offers example of lie
5 consequences of his lie offers evidence that silent lie is devastating
6 lying to Amy about Scott and consequences offers another example and evidence of
of that lie consequences
7 lying at diner offers another example of silent lie
8 silent lies can be devastating; concludes essay
prosecute people who tell silent lies, not
just “regular” lies
1. The essay is organized by order of importance, from most important to least important.
2. Probably not. For arguments, the best strategy is typically least to most important.
3. Reverse the order of the examples. Start with the diner scenario. Keep the Amy/Scott example second, and
then end with the most powerful example—the man who knowingly bought a stolen necklace and gave it
to his girlfriend.
Practice 2
Here’s one way to revise the conclusion:
Silence can not only be deceitful—it can also be deadly. Before you decide to deceive someone with silence, con-
sider the consequences of your action, and recognize it for what it is: a lie.
–ANSWER KEY–
187

Lesson 16
Practice 1
Individual revisions will vary, but you should have addressed the following problems in the paragraph.
1st sentence: unnecessary repetition and wordiness
2nd sentence: unnecessary repetition and wordiness, passive sentence
3rd sentence: pretentious language and wordiness
4th sentence: passive sentence
5th sentence: unnecessary repetition and ambiguity (does they refer to questions or opportunities?)
Here’s how the edited paragraph might look:
The greatest challenge my generation will face will be ethical dilemmas created by scientiﬁc advances. We have
discovered so much in this century, especially in the last few decades. We have opportunities to do things we never
thought possible before. But these opportunities have raised some very difﬁcult ethical questions. These oppor-
tunities have given us new power over nature, but this power can easily be abused.
Practice 2
The following is an example of a successful edit.
My generation will face many problems. First is the problem of feeling overwhelmed by technology. Second, with
the ever-increasing life span of human beings, the generation gap is widening. A third problem is the population
explosion; there are more people on the planet than ever before, and the world population continues to grow expo-
nentially, putting a squeeze on our habitable space. That leads us to a fourth problem: limited natural resources.
Lesson 17
Practice 1
Here is the paragraph with run-ons, fragments, agreement errors, and confusing words corrected:
Comic relief is important in tragedies. Readers need a little relief from all of the sadness in the story. For exam-
ple, consider Hamlet. After Ophelia dies, the next scene is with the gravedigger, who is a very funny character.
He digs up a skull and makes a long speech about who the skull might have belonged to. Even though it is about
death, the scene is funny, and it allows readers forget about the tragedy for a moment and laugh.
–ANSWER KEY–
188

Practice 2
Here is the paragraph with capitalization, punctuation, and spelling errors corrected:
Compact discs (CDs), which may be found in over 25 million American homes, not to mention backpacks and auto-
mobiles, first entered popular culture in the 1980s. But their history goes back to the 1960s, when an inventor
named James Russell decided to create an alternative to his scratched and warped phonograph records—a sys-
tem that could record, store, and replay music without ever wearing out.
Lesson 18
Practice 1
Each response will vary. Here’s one that successful fulfills the assignment:
Thesis: One of today’s unsung heroes is my friend Mani Kaur.
Outline:
1. How I met Mani
• behind her in line at the store
• she was buying diapers
• couldn’t believe how many she was buying
• I asked if she needed help carrying them to her car
• found out she had just adopted three baby girls from China
2. Meeting the babies
• told Mani I loved children
• she invited me to come over and help out
• went the next day
• saw how great she was with the babies
• saw how ill two of them looked
3. Why she adopted
• told me about the law of having only one child
• Mani and her husband couldn’t have children of their own
• wanted to rescue as many as they could, give them a better life
4. How can she handle it?
• Mani’s job—low paying (librarian), but flexible hours and close by
• husband’s job as marketing representative pays better, but he must travel three weeks each month
• close network of family and friends to help out
–ANSWER KEY–
189

5. Why is she a hero?
• forever changing lives of three children
• giving them a chance to grow up in a safe, loving home
• setting an example for others, like me
• a year later, babies all healthy, happy, well adjusted
Conclusion: Now when Mani goes to buy diapers, she always has someone to help—me.
Lessons 19 and 20
Practice
To estimate a grade for your timed essay, look at the scoring chart on pages 174–175. Read your essay and evalu-
ate it by using this special scoring system. After you assign a number for each of the categories shown on the scor-
ing chart, average the numbers to get an overall score. A 5 is an “A,” a 4 is a “B,” and so on.
Posttest, Part 1
If you miss any of the answers, you can ﬁnd help for that question type in the lesson(s) shown to the right of the
answer.
–ANSWER KEY–
190
1. b. 1, 2
2. d. 1
3. c. 12
4. a. 9
5. d. 6, 7
6. b. 10
7. d. 9, 15
8. a. 2
9. c. 14–17
10. b. 16
11. a. 13
12. a. 6, 7
13. c. 17
14. b. 18

15. b. 12
16. d. 16
17. e. 5, 8
18. b. 5, 6
19. d. 15
20. a. 11
–ANSWER KEY–
191
Posttest, Part 2
Use the scoring chart on pages 174–175 to evaluate your essay. After you assign a number for each of the categories
shown on the chart, average the numbers to get an overall score.

Grammar and Mechanics
Websites
www.grammarbook.com: the popular Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation online, with simple explanations
of grammar and punctuation pitfalls, and separate exercises and answer keys
www.m-w.com: Merriam-Webster Online. This site has a number of interesting features that will make you for-
get you are trying to improve your spelling! Check out the Word for the Wise section (www.m-w.com/cgi-
bin/wftw.pl) for fun facts about words.
www.protrainco.com/info/grammar.htm: The Professional Training Company’s “Good Grammar, Good Style
Pages”
www.spelling.hemscott.net: Useful advice on how to improve your spelling
www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/index.html: Paul Brians’s “Common Errors in English”
Books
Castley, Anna, Practical Spelling: The Bad Speller’s Guide to Getting It Right Every Time (LearningExpress, 1998)
Fowler, H.W., revised by Robert W. Burchﬁeld, The New Fowler’s Modern English Usage, 3rd Edition (Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2005)
Johnson, Edward D., The Handbook of Good English (Washington Square Press, 1991)
LearningExpress, 1001Vocabulary and Spelling Questions: Fast, Focused Practice to HelpYou ImproveYourWord Skills
(LearningExpress, 1999)
LearningExpress, Grammar Essentials, 3rd Edition (LearningExpress, 2006)
Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster’s Guide to Punctuation and Style (Merriam-Webster, 2002)
O’Conner, Patricia T., Woe Is I: The Grammarphobe’s Guide to Better English in Plain English, 2nd Edition (River-
head Trade, 2004)
Additional Resources
193

Princeton Review, Grammar Smart: A Guide to Perfect Usage, 2nd Edition (Princeton Review, 2001)
Strunk, William, and E.B. White, The Elements of Style, 4th Edition (Longman, 2000)
Williams, Joseph M., Style: Toward Clarity and Grace (University of Chicago Press, 1995)
Essay Exam Information
■ ACT
Online information, study tips, and practice test: www.actstudent.org.
Books: The creator of the ACT published The Real ACT Prep Guide in 2004 (Peterson’s Guides). Try Learning-
Express’s ACT Exam Success in Only 6 Steps.
■ SAT
Online information from the creator of the SAT: www.collegeboard.com.
Books: Since the SAT essay was given for the first time in 2005, be certain you use only the latest editions of SAT
preparation and information books. Good ones include Acing the SAT, published by LearningExpress, and
10 Real SATs, published by The College Board.
■ GED
www.philaliteracy.org/tech/essay/ is the Mayor of Philadelphia’s Commission on Literacy’s site on how to pre-
pare for the GED essay.
Books: Check out LearningExpress’s Acing the GED.
■ Regents’
www.gsu.edu/~wwwrtp/ is the state of Georgia Regents’ Site, with sample essay test form, list of topics, and scor-
ing information. Search for specific information on your state’s test using your state name and “Regent’s
essay” as search terms.
Supplemental Writing Prompts
501 Writing Prompt Questions (LearningExpress, 2003)
www.4tests.com has free practice tests modeled on the ACT, GED, and SAT essay sections, plus links to many good
test-preparation sites.
Online Writing Resources
www.bartleby.com
Without a doubt, the best online reference site on the Web. It has a searchable database of reference guides, ency-
clopedias, and much more. Just some of the works you’ll find here include The American Heritage Dictionary of
the English Language, Fowler’s Modern English Usage, The Elements of Style, and The American Heritage Book of Eng-
lish Usage.
–APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES–
194

http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/
This guide to grammar and writing, maintained by Professor Charles Darling of Capital Community College, Hart-
ford, CT, is a comprehensive site with a particularly useful “ask grammar” service.
http://dir.yahoo.com/social_science/linguistics_and_human_languages/languages/speciﬁc_languages/english/
grammar__usage__and_style/
Links to about 30 grammar and usage resources
http://www.askoxford.com
This site has sections on classic errors and helpful hints, better writing, and ask the experts. You can sign up for
“word of the day” e-mails, or chat with others about language questions.
http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~brians/errors/index.html
Common Errors in English, by Paul Brians, Professor of English at Washington State University, is a thorough and
easy-to-use site. William, James Co. has published a book based on this site titled Common Errors in English Usage.
Suggestions for Great Writing
■ Harper’s (weekly magazine)
■ The Atlantic (monthly magazine)
■ The Economist (London-based weekly magazine; check it out online at www.economist.com)
■ The New Yorker (weekly magazine)
■ Best American Essays 2005, Susan Orlean, editor (Houghton Mifﬂin, 2005)
■ One Hundred Great Essays, Robert DiYanni (Longman, 2001)
■ The Best American Science Writing 2005, Alan Lightman, Jesse Cohen, editors (Harper Perennial, 2005)
–APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES–
195

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