Structured Query Language (SQL) - An Introduction

SQLW I T H
P O S T G R E S Q L
R A J E E V S R I V A S T A V A ( R A J E E V S @ C D A C . I N )

SQL
• Stands for “Structured Query Language”
• Also pronounced as “SEQUEL” (Structured English QUEry Language)
• Standard access mechanism to every RDBMS.
• Case Insensitive
• Standard Based; SQL Standards are defined by ANSI (American National
Standards Institute)
• First Standard Published in 1989; Latest is 2016
Feb, 2019 rajeevs@cdac.in 2

COMPONENTS (CATEGORIES) OF SQL
STATEMENTS
• DDL: Data Definition Language(CREATE/ALTER/DROP/TRUNCATE)
• DML: Data Manipulation Language(INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE)
• DCL: Data Control Language (GRANT/REVOKE)
• DTL: Data Transaction Language OR
TCL: Transaction Control Language (COMMIT/ROLLBACK)
• DRL: Data Retrieval Language OR
DQ: Data Query Language (SELECT)

CREATING A TABLE
• Data in a data base is stored in the form of tables
• The table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of
columns and rows.
SYNTEX -
– CREATE TABLE <table name> (
<col name> <data type>,
<col name> <data type>
– );

CONSIDERATIONS FOR CREATING
TABLE
Points to be considered before creating a table -
– What are the attributes of the tuples to be stored?
– What are the data types of the attributes? Should varchar be used instead
of char ?
– Which column(s) build the primary key?
– Which columns should be defined as unique?
– Which columns do (not) allow null values? Which columns do (not) allow
duplicates ?
– Are there default values for certain columns?

POSTGRESQL: DATA TYPES
• Data Type defines what kind of values can be stored in a column.
• Data Type also defines the way data will be stored in the system and the space
required in disk.
• Data Type also impacts database performance.
• Ex- Char, Varchar, Text, Integer, Numeric, Date, Time, Timestamp, Boolean,
UUID, Array JSON.
• More on PostgreSQL Datatypes :
https://www.postgresql.org/docs/11/datatype.html

INSERT COMMAND
• Used to insert data into a table
• Insert command always inserts values as new row
Syntax -
INSERT INTO <table name> VALUES (<val 1>, <val 2>);
• Insert data into specific columns of a table -
INSERT INTO <table name> (<col1>) VALUES (<value>);
• Define an insertion order -
INSERT INTO <table name> (<col 2>, <col 1> ) VALUES (<val 2>, <val 1>);
• Missing attribute ® NULL.
• May drop attribute names if give them in order

CRUD OPERATIONS
Operation SQL Command
CREATE INSERT
READ SELECT
UPDATE UPDATE
DELETE DELETE/TRUNCATE

SELECT COMMAND
• Used to Retrieve/Fetch information from the database.
Syntax :
SELECT <col name> FROM <table name> [WHERE <condition>];
SELECT <col1>, <col2> FROM <table name> [WHERE <condition>];
An asterisk symbol (*) Represents all columns/attributes.

SELECTION & PROJECTION
• SELECTION – limiting rows selection (by using WHERE clause)
– SELECT * FROM <table name> WHERE <col1> = <val1> ;
• PROJECTION – limiting columns selection (by using SELECT clause)
– SELECT <col1>, <col2> FROM <table name>;

ALTER TABLE
• Syntax
– To modify/change an existing column
ALTER TABLE <tablename> ALTER COLUMN <col1> <new data type>;
– To add new column
ALTER TABLE <tablename> ADD COLUMN <col> <data type>;
– To rename an existing column
ALTER TABLE <tablename> RENAME COLUMN <col> TO <new col name>;
– To drop/remove an existing column
ALTER TABLE <tablename> DROP COLUMN <col>;

NULL VALUE
• When you do not insert data into a column of a table for a specific row then by
default a NULL value will be inserted into that column by the database.
INSERT INTO dept (deptno, deptname) VALUES (40, ’BIOM’);
• NULL value does not occupy space in memory
• NULL value is independent of a data type
• A NULL value is not a zero (0) OR an empty string (‘ ’), rather it represents an
Unknown or Not applicable value.

UPDATE COMMAND
• This command inserts or modifies values in the cells in existing rows
• This command can also be used for deleting values from a cell of a table
without the need for deleting a row or a column
Syntax
• UPDATE <table name> SET <col name> = <new value> [WHERE <condition>];

DELETE COMMAND
• This command is used for deleting specific or all the rows from a table
Syntax
DELETE FROM <table name> [WHERE <condition>];

TRUNCATE COMMAND
• This command can also be used for deleting all the rows from a table
Syntax
TRUNCATE TABLE <table name>;
• Truncate command cannot be rolled back because it is a AUTO COMMIT
operation, i.e. changes committed cannot be rolled back. But DELETE is not a
AUTO COMMIT operation. Hence DELETE can be ROLLED BACK.
• Truncate is a DDL Command.

DROP COMMAND
• DROP command can be used for permanently deleting database objects like
table, view, function etc. from a database
Syntax
DROP TABLE <table name>;

CONSTRAINTS
• PRIMARY KEY
• FOREIGN KEY
• UNIQUE
• NOT NULL
• DEFAULT
• CHECK

RELATIONAL OPERATORS
Operator Description Example
=
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes
then condition becomes true.
(A=A) is true
(A = B) is not true.
!=
<>
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if
values are not equal then condition becomes true.
(A != B) is true.
>
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(A > B) is not true.
<
Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(A < B) is true.
>=
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal
to the value of right operand, if yes then condition
becomes true.
(A >= B) is not true.
<=
Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to
the value of right operand, if yes then condition
becomes true.
(A <= B) is true

BETWEEN … AND… OPERATOR
• This operator is used as a replacement for relational (>, <) and logical
operators (AND, OR)
• The lower limit must be <= upper limit
• SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 10000 AND 20000;

IS NULL OPERATORS
• Used for testing for the existence of NULL values in any column
• Ex. Display the details of those employees who are not having any job
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job IS NULL:
IS NOT NULL
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job IS NOT NULL:
• Null value cannot be compared. Hence you cannot use relational
operators for comparing NULL value with a column
• Therefore IS NULL operator has to be used for the purpose

IN OPERATOR
• This operator is used to compare multiple values with a single
column
• In this operator, values supplied must be of the same type and
they should belong to only 1 column
• This operator is a replacement for multiple OR operators
– SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job IN (‘PE', ‘TO‘, ‘SE’);

LIKE OPERATOR - % AND _
• This operator is used for comparing characters/numbers in a
value from a specific position
• % ignores variable number of characters
• _ ignores only 1 char
• Display the details of those emps whose name is starting with ‘r’
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE 'r%‘;
• Display the details of those emps who have ‘h’ as second
character in their name -
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE ‘_h%‘;

DISTINCT - ELIMINATING DUPLICATES
• DISTINCT command is used to select only unique values from a column.
• i.e. only single occurrence of a value will be returned.
SELECT DISTINCT job FROM EMP;
SELECT DISTINCT loc FROM dept;

FUNCTIONS
• Function is a Sub Program which performs a specific task
• Every function returns only 1 value
• Functions in database can be used or defined for
– Performing calculations which are not possible/easy using
operators
– Formatting text/numbers/dates
– Type casting i.e. converting one type of data into another
– To fetch information from system schema. Eg. VERSION()

FUNCTION – TYPES AND USES
• Types of Functions
– System defined functions
– User defined functions
• Syntax -
SELECT <function name(args)> [FROM <table name>];

FUNCTIONS – SYSTEM DEFINED
• Numeric functions
• String functions
• Date and Time functions
• Type Casting funtions
• Aggregate functions
More Functions -
– https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/functions.html

FEW FUNCTIONS
Aggregate Functions
• COUNT() – Gives count of occurrences; Works on All data types.
• AVG() – Average. Works only on Numeric values
• SUM() – Gives total/sum. Works only on Numeric values
• MAX() – Maximum Value. All data types
• MIN() – Minimum Value. All data types

REAL TIME USE OF FUNCTIONS
SELECT UPPER(dname) FROM dept;
SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp;
SELECT SUM(sal), AVG(SAL) FROM emp;

JOINS
• Join is a technique of retrieving data from multiple tables
• Display the ename AND dname from emp and dept tables
SELECT ename, dname FROM emp, dept WHERE emp.deptno =
dept.deptno;
• Display the ename and dname of those emps whose sal is > 20000
SELECT ename, dname, sal FROM emp, dept WHERE emp.deptno =
dept.deptno AND sal > 20000;

SUBQUERIES
• It is a query within some other query
• Display the details of those employees who are getting a sal > Aditya
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal > (SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE
ename = ‘Aditya’;
• Display details of all employees who work in department ‘SENG’;
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE DEPTNO = (SELECT deptno FROM dept
WHERE dname = ‘SENG’);

MORE SUBQUERIES EXAMPLES
• Display the maximum salary from every department and also the name
of that employee who is getting the maximum Salary.
SELECT ename, sal, deptno FROM emp WHERE (deptno, sal) IN
(SELECT deptno, max(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno);

MORE SQL CLAUSES
• ORDER BY (if used, ORDER BY must by last clause of a query, except when you
have used LIMIT Clause)
– SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL;
– SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL DESC;
– SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL DESC, ENAME;
• GROUP BY
– SELECT DEPTNO, SUM(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO;
• GROUP BY….HAVING
– SELECT DEPTNO, SUM(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO HAVING SUM(SAL) <
50000;

LIMITING NO OF RECORDS
• LIMIT clause is used to limit number of records return in a SELECT query.
• Its not part of SQL standard, works in PostgreSQL and few other RDBMS.
• Unexceptionally, must be the last clause of a query.
SELECT * FROM emp LIMIT 2;
SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY sal DESC LIMIT 3;

COPYING TABLE/DATA
• A copy of the table (with, without or selected data)can be created using
SELECT command
CREATE table dept_copy AS SELECT * FROM dept;
CREATE table emp_pe AS SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job = ‘PE’;
CREATE table emp_new AS SELECT * FROM emp WHERE 1=2
• To copy only data of a table to another table
INSERT INTO emp_seng SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno = (SELECT deptno
FROM dept WHERE dname = ‘SENG’);
INSERT INTO emp_seng SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno = 10;

COMMIT, SAVEPOINT & ROLLBACK
• By default autocommit parameter is ON in PostgreSQL and can be
reconfigured by PostgreSQL Administrator. A user can set autocommit
parameter to ON & OFF for herself using alter command.
• Savepoint and Rollback commands will be effective only when autocommit is
OFF;
• System (PostgreSQL Engine) autocommits all uncommitted operations before
executing any DDL command.
COMMIT;
SAVEPOINT <variable name>;
ROLLBACK [ TO <variable name>];

GRANT & REVOKE
• GRANT command is used to give selected/all DML and DDL command
privileges to other database user;
GRANT [PRIVILEGES] ON <tablename> TO ‘<username>‘;
GRANT [PRIVILEGES] ON <tablename> TO ‘<username>‘ WITH GRANT OPTION;
• REVOKE command is used to REVOKE command privileges given to other
database user using GRANT Command;
REVOKE [PRIVILEGES] ON <tablename> FROM ‘<username>‘;

ADDING A CONSTRAINT AFTER
CREATION OF A TABLE
• Any type of constraint can be added or dropped even after creation of table.
PRIMARY KEY
ALTER TABLE <tablename> ADD CONSTRAINT <constraintname> PRIMARY KEY (<column
name>);
ALTER TABLE <tablename> ADD PRIMARY KEY (<columnname>);
ALTER TABLE <tablename> DROP PRIMARY KEY;
UNIQUE
ALTER TABLE <tablename> ADD CONSTRAINT <constraintname> <UNIQUE>;
ALTER TABLE <tablename> DROP INDEX <constraintname>;
DEFAULT
ALTER TABLE <tablename> ALTER <column name> SET DEFAULT <default value>;
ALTER TABLE <tablename> ALTER <column name> DROP DEFAULT;

JOIN TYPES : SQL STANDARD SYNTAX
• (INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
• LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records from the left table, and the matched records from
the right table
• RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records from the right table, and the matched records
from the left table
• FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records when there is a match in either left or right table
SELECT <column names> FROM <table name1> [LEFT |RIGHT] OUTER JOIN
<tablename2> ON <tablename1>.<column name> = <tablename2>.<column
name>;

INNER JOIN: EXAMPLES
SELECT empno, ename, sal, dname
FROM dept JOIN emp
ON dept.deptno = emp.deptno;
SELECT *
FROM dept JOIN emp

LEFT OUTER JOIN: EXAMPLE
FROM dept LEFT OUTER JOIN emp
SELECT *
FROM dept LEFT OUTER JOIN emp

RIGHT OUTER JOIN: EXAMPLE
FROM dept RIGHT OUTER JOIN emp
SELECT *
FROM dept RIGHT OUTER JOIN emp

SET OPERATIONS: UNION, INTERSECT,
EXCEPT
• Set operations treat the tables as sets and are the usual set operators of union,
intersection, and difference
SELECT * FROM <table name 1>
UNION | INTERSECT I EXCEPT
SELECT * FROM <table name 2>;
• SET operations must fulfil following two conditions –
– Number of columns in the SELECT clause of both[all] queries must be same.
– Data type of respective columns in both[all] queries must be same or
compatible.

VIEWS
• Views are ‘Virtual Tables’.
• Views does not store data but fetches the data from underlying
tables[s] dynamically at runtime.
CREATE VIEW <view name> AS <Select Query> ;
• All DML operations can be performed on a view and it affects
underlying table.

INDEXES
• Indexes are database objects used by DBMS to retrieve the data from table in
a faster manner.
• Invisible to end user
• Speed up SELECT queries but slow down INSERTS/UPDATES/DELETES –
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX <index name>
ON <table name> (<column name> [, <column name2>],…..’;
• Dropping an Index
DROP INDEX <index name>;

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